The present invention relates to deletion of the BRG1 gene or a portion of this gene in a human cancer. This gene has been previously reported in the literature, being originally cloned by Khavari et al. (1993). It was shown to be a human homolog of Drosophila brahma. Brahma is an activator of multiple homeotic genes and an important regulator of development. Using the yeast two hybrid assay it was also found that BRG1 binds specifically to the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, RB (Dunaief et al., 1994).
The publications and other materials used herein to illuminate the background of the invention or provide additional details respecting the practice, are incorporated herein by reference, and for convenience are referenced in the following text and respectively grouped in the appended List of References.
The genetics of cancer is complicated, involving multiple dominant, positive regulators of the transformed state (oncogenes) as well as multiple recessive, negative regulators (tumor suppressor genes). Over one hundred oncogenes have been characterized. Fewer than a dozen tumor suppressor genes have been identified, but the number is expected to increase beyond fifty (Knudson, 1993).
The involvement of so many genes underscores the complexity of the growth control mechanisms that operate in cells to maintain the integrity of normal tissue. This complexity is manifested in another way. So far, no single gene has been shown to participate in the development of all, or even the majority of human cancers. The most common oncogenic mutations are in the H-ras gene, found in 10-15% of all solid tumors (Anderson et al., 1992). The most frequently mutated tumor suppressor gene is the p53 gene, mutated in roughly 50% of all tumors. Without a target that is common to all transformed cells, the dream of a xe2x80x9cmagic bulletxe2x80x9d that can destroy or revert cancer cells while leaving normal tissue unharmed is improbable. The hope for a new generation of specifically targeted antitumor drugs may rest on the ability to identify tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes that play general roles in control of cell division.
The tumor suppressor genes, which have been cloned and characterized, influence susceptibility to: 1) retinoblastoma (RB1); 2) Wilms"" tumor (WT1); 3) Li-Fraumeni (TP53); 4) Familial adenomatous polyposis (APC); 5) Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1); 6) Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2); 7) von Hippel-Lindau syndrome (VHL); and 8) Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A (MEN2A).
Tumor suppressor loci that have been mapped genetically but not yet isolated include genes for: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN 1); Lynch cancer family syndrome 2 (LCFS2); Neuroblastoma (NB); Basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS); Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS); Renal cell carcinoma (RCC); Tuberous sclerosis 1 (TSC 1); and Tuberous sclerosis 2 (TSC2). The tumor suppressor genes that have been characterized to date encode products with similarities to a variety of protein types, including DNA binding proteins (WT1), ancillary transcription regulators (RB1), GTPase activating proteins or GAPs (NF1), cytoskeletal components (NF2), membrane bound receptor kinases (MEN2A), and others with no obvious similarity to known proteins (APC and VHL).
In many cases, the tumor suppressor gene originally identified through genetic studies has been shown in some sporadic tumors to be lost or mutated. This result suggests that regions of chromosomal aberration may signify the position of important tumor suppressor genes involved both in genetic predisposition to cancer and in sporadic cancer.
One of the hallmarks of several tumor suppressor genes characterized to date is that they are deleted at high frequency in certain tumor types. The deletions often involve loss of a single allele, a so-called loss of heterozygosity (LOH), but may also involve homozygous deletion of both alleles. For LOH, the remaining allele is presumed to be nonfunctional, either because of a preexisting inherited mutation, or because of a secondary sporadic mutation. Whereas LOH events commonly involve chromosomal deletions spanning many megabases of DNA, homozygous deletions are relatively small in size, probably due to the presence of essential genes in their proximity. Indeed, the identification of tumor suppressor genes has been facilitated by the discovery of homozygous deletions present within the genomes of cancer cell lines and xenografts; examples include p16 (Kamb et al., 1994), DPC4 (Hahn et al., 1996), BRCA2 (Wooster et al., 1995; Tavtigian et al., 1996) and MMAC1PTEN (Steck et al., 1997; Li et al., 1997).
Cells in tissues have only three serious options in lifexe2x80x94they can grow and divide, not grow but stay alive, or die by apoptosis. Tumors may arise either by inappropriate growth and division or by cells failing to die when they should. One of the mechanisms for controlling tumor growth might involve direct regulation of the cell cycle. For example, genes that control the decision to initiate DNA replication are attractive candidates for oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes, depending on whether they have a stimulatory or inhibitory role in the process. Progression of eukaryotic cells through the cell cycle (G1, S, G2 and M phases) is governed by the sequential formation, activation and subsequent inactivation of a series of cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) complexes. Cyclin D""s/Cdk2,4,5, Cyclin E/Cdk2, Cyclin A/Cdk2 and Cyclin B/A/Cdk2 have been shown to be involved in this process. Cyclin D""s and Cdk2, Cdk4 and Cdk5 have been implicated in the transition from G1 to S; that is, when cells grow and decide whether to begin DNA replication. Additional cell cycle control elements have recently been discovered. These elements are inhibitors of Cdks (Cdk inhibitors, CKI), and include Far1, p21, p40, p20 and p16 (Marx, 1994; Nasmyth and Hunt, 1993).
Recently, several oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes have been found to participate directly in the cell cycle. For example, one of the cyclins (proteins that promote DNA replication) has been implicated as an oncogene (Motokura et al., 1991; Lammie et al., 1991; Withers et al., 1991; Rosenberg et al., 1991), and tumor suppressor Rb interacts with the primary cyclin-binding partners, the Cdks (Ewen et al., 1993). Identification of a melanoma susceptibility locus would open the way for genetic screening of individuals to assess, for example, the increased risk of cancer due to sunlight exposure. A family of multiple tumor suppressor (MTS) genes has also been found and studied (Kamb et al., 1994; Liu et al., 1995b; Jiang et al., 1995; Stone et al., 1995a; Stone et al., 1995b; Gruis et al., 1995; Liu et al., 1995a; Hannon and Beach, 1994; Serrano et al., 1993). The MTS may also predispose to a large number of other cancer sites, including but not limited to, leukemia, astrocytoma, glioblastoma, lymphoma, glioma, Hodgkin""s lymphoma, multiple myeloma, sarcoma, myosarcoma, cholangiocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, CLL, and cancers of the pancreas, breast, brain, prostate, bladder, thyroid, ovary, uterus, testis, kidney, stomach, colon and rectum. In addition, since MTS influences progression of several different tumor types, it should be useful for determining prognosis in cancer patients. Thus, MTS may serve as the basis for development of very important diagnostic tests, one capable of predicting the predisposition to cancer, such as melanoma, ocular melanoma, leukemia, astrocytoma, glioblastoma, lymphoma, glioma, Hodgkin""s lymphoma, multiple myeloma, sarcoma, myosarcoma, cholangiocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, CLL, and cancers of the pancreas, breast, brain, prostate, bladder, thyroid, ovary, uterus, testis, kidney, stomach, colon and rectum, and one capable of predicting the prognosis of cancer. Furthermore, since MTS is involved in the progression of multiple tumor types, MTS may provide the means, either directly or indirectly, for a general anti-cancer therapy by virtue of its ability to suppress tumor growth. For example, restoration of the normal MTS function to a tumor cell may transmute the cell into non-malignancy.
Just as the MTS genes appear to be involved in suppressing several types of tumors, the BRG1 gene of the present invention also is involved in suppressing tumors. Although the BRG1 gene was previously known (Khavari et al., 1993), the association between BRG1 and tumor forrnation was unknown prior to the present work. Specifically, there has been no previous report showing that the BRG1 gene is targeted for mutations. It was recognized that BRG1 binds specifically to the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, RB (Dunaief et al. 1994).
The present invention relates to somatic mutations in the BRG1 gene in human cancers and their use in the diagnosis and prognosis of human cancer. The invention further relates to germline mutations in the BRG1 gene and their use in the diagnosis of predisposition to prostate cancer. The invention also relates to the therapy of human cancers which result from having a mutation in the BRG1 gene, including gene therapy, protein replacement therapy and protein mimetics. Finally, the invention relates to the screening of drugs for cancer therapy.
SEQ ID NO:1 is the cDNA for BRG1.
SEQ ID NO:2 is the amino acid sequence of BRG1.
SEQ ID NOs:3-4 are hypothetical DNAs used to illustrate percent homology.
SEQ ID NOs:5-16 are primers used for homozygous deletion analysis of BRG1 in the cell line TSU-pr1.
SEQ ID NO:17 is exon 10 plus flanking intron sequence of genomic BRG1.
SEQ ID NOs:18-25 are primers used for amplification of cDNA for mutation screening of a region of the BRG1 coding sequence.
SEQ ID NOs:26-29 are primers used for an analysis of BRG1 genomic DNA.
SEQ ID NOs:30-58 are genomic DNA sequences for all exons plus some flanking intron of BRG1.
Table 6 sets out the correspondence between exon number, SEQ ID NO and base numbers of each SEQ ID NO corresponding to exon.
SEQ ID NO:59 is exon 29B.
SEQ ID NO:60 is the BRG1 mRNA produced in each of cell lines DU145 and NCI-H1299.
SEQ ID NO:61 is the BRG1 protein produced in each of cell lines DU145 and NCI-H1299.
SEQ ID NOs:62-63 are the cDNA and protein for BRG1 containing a mutation at base 1704.
SEQ ID NOs:64-77 are splice variants of SEQ ID NO:1 and the encoded proteins.
The present invention relates to somatic mutations in the BRG1 gene in human cancers, especially prostate cancer, and their use in the diagnosis and prognosis of human cancer. The invention further relates to germline mutations in the BRG1 gene and their use in the diagnosis of predisposition to various cancers, especially prostate cancer. The invention also relates to the therapy of human cancers which have a mutation in the BRG1 gene, including gene therapy, protein replacement therapy and protein mimetics. Finally, the invention relates to the screening of drugs for cancer therapy.
The present invention provides an isolated polynucleotide comprising all, or a portion of the BRG1 locus or of a mutated BRG1 locus, preferably at least eight bases and not more than about 100 kb in length. Such polynucleotides may be antisense polynucleotides. The present invention also provides a recombinant construct comprising such an isolated polynucleotide, for example, a recombinant construct suitable for expression in a transformed host cell.
Also provided by the present invention are methods of detecting a polynucleotide comprising a portion of the BRG1 locus or its expression product in an analyte. Such methods may further comprise the step of amplifying the portion of the BRG1 locus, and may further include a step of providing a set of polynucleotides which are primers for amplification of said portion of the BRG1 locus. The method is useful for either diagnosis of the predisposition to cancer or the diagnosis or prognosis of cancer.
The present invention also provides isolated antibodies, preferably monoclonal antibodies, which specifically bind to an isolated polypeptide comprised of at least five amino acid residues encoded by the BRG1 locus.
The present invention also provides kits for detecting in an analyte a polynucleotide comprising a portion of the BRG1 locus, the kits comprising a polynucleotide complementary to the portion of the BRG1 locus packaged in a suitable container, and instructions for their use.
The present invention further provides methods of preparing a polynucleotide comprising polymerizing nucleotides to yield a sequence comprised of at least eight consecutive nucleotides of the BRG1 locus; and methods of preparing a polypeptide comprising polymerizing amino acids to yield a sequence comprising at least five amino acids encoded within the BRG1 locus.
In addition, the present invention provides methods of screening drugs for cancer therapy to identify suitable drugs for restoring BRG1 gene product function.
Finally, the present invention provides the means necessary for production of gene-based therapies directed at cancer cells. These therapeutic agents may take the form of polynucleotides comprising all or a portion of the BRG1 locus placed in appropriate vectors or delivered to target cells in more direct ways such that the function of the BRG1 protein is reconstituted. Therapeutic agents may also take the form of polypeptides based on either a portion of, or the entire protein sequence of BRG1. These may functionally replace the activity of BRG1 in vivo.
It is a discovery of the present invention that the BRG1 locus predisposes individuals to prostate cancer. By using microcell fusion-mediated chromosomal transfer to introduce human chromosome 19 into highly metastatic rat and human prostate cancer cells, suppression of tumorigenicity in vivo in athymic nude mice was demonstrated by Gao et al. (1999). Specifically, it is a region at human chromosome 19p13.1 that is responsible for tumor suppression. It was therefore predicted that a candidate tumor suppressor gene would reside within this region. We localized a gene called BRG1 by radiation hybrid mapping to chromosome band 19p13.1. BRG1 was originally cloned by Khavari et al. (1993). It was shown to be a human homolog of Drosophila brahma. Brahma is an activator of multiple homeotic genes and an important regulator of development. Using the yeast two hybrid assay, it was also found that BRG1 binds specifically to the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, RB (Dunaief et al., 1994). Together these data suggested that BRG1 may be an excellent tumor suppressor candidate and could be targeted for mutations.
The BRG1 locus was first recognized as containing a tumor suppressor gene when we noted it to be part of a homozygous deletion in a prostate tumor cell line called TSU-pr1. A homozygous deletion scan by PCR of a panel of 192 tumor cell line genomic DNAs showed that the 3xe2x80x2 portion, including coding sequences of the BRG1 gene, is deleted in the prostate cell line TSU-pr1. Further investigation for additional mutations in other tumor cell lines led to the identification of a deletion of bases 1677-1761 of the open reading frame of BRG1 in prostate tumor cell line DU145 and in lung cancer cell line NCIH1299. This deletion causes a frameshift. The wild-type sequence of BRG1 was not detected in these cell lines indicating that a normal BRG1 product would not be found. This is consistent with the notion that BRG1 is a tumor suppressor gene.
According to the diagnostic and prognostic method of the present invention, alteration of the wild-type BRG1 locus is detected. In addition, the method can be performed by detecting the wild-type BRG1 locus and confirming the lack of a predisposition or neoplasia. xe2x80x9cAlteration of a wild-type genexe2x80x9d encompasses all forms of mutations including deletions, insertions and point mutations in the coding and noncoding regions. Deletions may be of the entire gene or only a portion of the gene. Point mutations may result in stop codons, frameshift mutations or amino acid substitutions. Somatic mutations are those which occur only in certain tissues, e.g., in the tumor tissue, and are not inherited in the germline. Germline mutations can be found in any of a body""s tissues and are inherited. If only a single allele is somatically mutated, an early neoplastic state is indicated. However, if both alleles are mutated, then a late neoplastic state is indicated. A BRG1 allele which is not deleted (e.g., that found on the sister chromosome to a chromosome carrying a BRG1 deletion) can be screened for other mutations, such as insertions, small deletions, and point mutations. It is believed that many mutations found in tumor tissues will be those leading to decreased expression of the BRG1 gene product. However, mutations leading to non-functional gene products would also lead to a cancerous state. Point mutational events may occur in regulatory regions, such as in the promoter of the gene, leading to loss or diminution of expression of the mRNA. Point mutations may also abolish proper RNA processing, leading to loss of expression of the BRG1 gene product, or a decrease in mRNA stability or translation efficiency.
Useful diagnostic techniques include, but are not limited to fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), direct DNA sequencing, PFGE analysis, Southern blot analysis, single stranded conformation analysis (SSCA), RNase protection assay, allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO), dot blot analysis, hybridization using nucleic acid modified with gold nanoparticles and PCR-SSCP, as discussed in detail further below. Also useful is the recently developed technique of DNA microchip technology.
Predisposition to cancers, such as prostate and the other cancers identified herein, can be ascertained by testing any tissue of a human for mutations of the BRG1 gene. For example, a person who has inherited a germline BRG1 mutation would be prone to develop cancers. This can be determined by testing DNA from any tissue of the person""s body. Most simply, blood can be drawn and DNA extracted from the cells of the blood. In addition, prenatal diagnosis can be accomplished by testing fetal cells, placental cells or amniotic fluid for mutations of the BRG1 gene. Alteration of a wild-type BRG1 allele, whether, for example, by point mutation or by deletion, can be detected by any of the means discussed herein.
There are several methods that can be used to detect DNA sequence variation. Direct DNA sequencing, either manual sequencing or automated fluorescent sequencing can detect sequence variation. Another approach is the single-stranded conformation polymorphism assay (SSCP) (Orita et al., 1989). This method does not detect all sequence changes, especially if the DNA fragment size is greater than 200 bp, but can be optimized to detect most DNA sequence variation. The reduced detection sensitivity is a disadvantage, but the increased throughput possible with SSCP makes it an attractive, viable alternative to direct sequencing for mutation detection on a research basis. The fragments which have shifted mobility on SSCP gels are then sequenced to determine the exact nature of the DNA sequence variation. Other approaches based on the detection of mismatches between the two complementary DNA strands include clamped denaturing gel electrophoresis (CDGE) (Sheffield et al., 1991), heteroduplex analysis (HA) (White et al., 1992) and chemical mismatch cleavage (CMC) (Grompe et al., 1989). None of the methods described above will detect large deletions, duplications or insertions, nor will they detect a regulatory mutation which affects transcription or translation of the protein. Other methods which might detect these classes of mutations such as a protein truncation assay or the asymmetric assay, detect only specific types of mutations and would not detect missense mutations. A review of currently available methods of detecting DNA sequence variation can be found in a recent review by Grompe (1993). Once a mutation is known, an allele specific detection approach such as allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) hybridization can be utilized to rapidly screen large numbers of other samples for that same mutation. Such a technique can utilize probes which are labeled with gold nanoparticles to yield a visual color result (Elghanian et al., 1997).
In order to detect the alteration of the wild-type BRG1 gene in a tissue, it is helpful to isolate the tissue free from surrounding normal tissues. Means for enriching a tissue preparation for tumor cells are known in the art. For example, the tissue may be isolated from paraffin or cryostat sections. Cancer cells may also be separated from normal cells by flow cytometry. These techniques, as well as other techniques for separating tumor cells from normal cells, are well known in the art. If the tumor tissue is highly contaminated with normal cells, detection of mutations is more difficult.
A rapid preliminary analysis to detect polymorphisms in DNA sequences can be performed by looking at a series of Southern blots of DNA cut with one or more restriction enzymes, preferably a large number of restriction enzymes. Each blot contains a series of normal individuals and a series of cancer cases, tumors, or both. Southern blots displaying hybridizing fragments (differing in length from control DNA when probed with sequences near or including the BRG1 locus) indicate a possible mutation. If restriction enzymes which produce very large restriction fragments are used, then pulsed field gel electrophoresis (xe2x80x9cPFGExe2x80x9d) is employed.
Detection of point mutations may be accomplished by molecular cloning of the BRG1 allele and sequencing that allele using techniques well known in the art. Alternatively, the gene sequences can be amplified, using known techniques, directly from a genomic DNA preparation from the tumor tissue. The DNA sequence of the amplified sequences can then be determined.
There are six well known methods for a more complete, yet still indirect, test for confirming the presence of a susceptibility allele: 1) single stranded conformation analysis (xe2x80x9cSSCAxe2x80x9d) (Orita et al., 1989); 2) denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (xe2x80x9cDGGExe2x80x9d) (Wartell et al., 1990; Sheffield et al., 1989); 3) RNase protection assays (Finkelstein et al., 1990; Kinszler et al., 1991); 4) allele-specific oligonucleotides (xe2x80x9cASOsxe2x80x9d) (Conner et al., 1983); 5) the use of proteins which recognize nucleotide mismatches, such as the E. coli mutS protein (Modrich, 1991); and 6) allele-specific PCR (Ruano and Kidd, 1989). For allele-specific PCR, primers are used which hybridize at their 3xe2x80x2 ends to a particular BRG1 mutation. If the particular BRG1 mutation is not present, an amplification product is not observed. Amplification Refractory Mutation System (ARMS) can also be used, as disclosed in European Patent Application Publication No. 0332435 and in Newton et al., 1989. Insertions and deletions of genes can also be detected by cloning, sequencing and amplification. In addition, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) probes for the gene or surrounding marker genes can be used to score alteration of an allele or an insertion in a polymorphic fragment. Such a method is particularly useful for screening relatives of an affected individual for the presence of the BRG1 mutation found in that individual. Other techniques for detecting insertions and deletions as known in the art can be used.
In the first three methods (i.e., SSCA, DGGE and RNase protection assay), a new electrophoretic band appears. SSCA detects a band which migrates differentially because the sequence change causes a difference in single-strand, intramolecular base pairing. RNase protection involves cleavage of the mutant polynucleotide into two or more smaller fragments. DGGE detects differences in migration rates of mutant sequences compared to wild-type sequences, using a denaturing gradient gel. In an allele-specific oligonucleotide assay, an oligonucleotide is designed which detects a specific sequence, and the assay is performed by detecting the presence or absence of a hybridization signal. In the mutS assay, the protein binds only to sequences that contain a nucleotide mismatch in a heteroduplex between mutant and wild-type sequences.
Mismatches, according to the present invention, are hybridized nucleic acid duplexes in which the two strands are not 100% complementary. Lack of total homology may be due to deletions, insertions, inversions or substitutions. Mismatch detection can be used to detect point mutations in the gene or its mRNA product. While these techniques are less sensitive than sequencing, they are simpler to perform on a large number of tumor samples. An example of a mismatch cleavage technique is the RNase protection method. In the practice of the present invention, the method involves the use of a labeled riboprobe which is complementary to the human wild-type BRG1 gene coding sequence. The riboprobe and either mRNA or DNA isolated from the tumor tissue are annealed (hybridized) together and subsequently digested with the enzyme RNase A which is able to detect some mismatches in a duplex RNA structure. If a mismatch is detected by RNase A, it cleaves at the site of the mismatch. Thus, when the annealed RNA preparation is separated on an electrophoretic gel matrix, if a mismatch has been detected and cleaved by RNase A, an RNA product will be seen which is smaller than the full length duplex RNA for the riboprobe and the mRNA or DNA. The riboprobe need not be the full length of the BRG1 mRNA or gene but can be a segment of either. If the riboprobe comprises only a segment of the BRG1 mRNA or gene, it will be desirable to use a number of these probes to screen the whole mRNA sequence for mismatches.
In similar fashion, DNA probes can be used to detect mismatches, through enzymatic or chemical cleavage. See, e.g., Cotton et al., 1988; Shenk et al., 1975; Novack et al., 1986. Alternatively, mismatches can be detected by shifts in the electrophoretic mobility of mismatched duplexes relative to matched duplexes. See, e.g., Cariello, 1988. With either riboprobes or DNA probes, the cellular mRNA or DNA which might contain a mutation can be amplified using PCR (see below) before hybridization. Changes in DNA of the BRG1 gene can also be detected using Southern hybridization, especially if the changes are gross rearrangements, such as deletions and insertions.
DNA sequences of the BRG1 gene which have been amplified by use of PCR may also be screened using allele-specific probes. These probes are nucleic acid oligomers, each of which contains a region of the BRG1 gene sequence harboring a known mutation. For example, one oligomer may be about 30 nucleotides in length, corresponding to a portion of the BRG1 gene sequence. By use of a battery of such allele-specific probes, PCR amplification products can be screened to identify the presence of a previously identified mutation in the BRG1 gene. Hybridization of allele-specific probes with amplified BRG1 sequences can be performed, for example, on a nylon filter. Hybridization to a particular probe under high stringency hybridization conditions indicates the presence of the same mutation in the tumor tissue as in the allele-specific probe. High stringency hybridization conditions are defined as those conditions which allow an 8 basepair stretch of a first nucleic acid (a probe) to bind to a 100% perfectly complementary 8 basepair stretch of nucleic acid while simultaneously preventing binding of said first nucleic acid to a nucleic acid which is not 100% complementary, i.e., binding will not occur if there is a mismatch.
The newly developed technique of nucleic acid analysis via microchip technology is also applicable to the present invention. In this technique, literally thousands of distinct oligonucleotide probes are built up in an array on a silicon chip. Nucleic acid to be analyzed is fluorescently labeled and hybridized to the probes on the chip. It is also possible to study nucleic acid-protein interactions using these nucleic acid microchips. Using this technique one can determine the presence of mutations or even sequence the nucleic acid being analyzed or one can measure expression levels of a gene of interest. The method is one of parallel processing of many, even thousands, of probes at once and can tremendously increase the rate of analysis. Several papers have been published which use this technique. Some of these are Hacia et al., 1996; Shoemaker et al., 1996; Chee et al., 1996; Lockhart et al., 1996; DeRisi et al., 1996; Lipshutz et al., 1995. This method has already been used to screen people for mutations in the breast cancer gene BRCA 1 (Hacia et al., 1996). This new technology has been reviewed in a news article in Chemical and Engineering News (Borman, 1996) and been the subject of an editorial (Nature Genetics, 1996). Also see Fodor (1997).
The most definitive test for mutations in a candidate locus is to directly compare genomic BRG1 sequences from cancer patients with those from a control population. Alternatively, one could sequence messenger RNA after amplification, e.g., by PCR, thereby eliminating the necessity of determining the exon structure of the candidate gene.
Mutations from cancer patients falling outside the coding region of BRG1 can be detected by examining the non-coding regions, such as introns and regulatory sequences near or within the BRG1 gene. An early indication that mutations in noncoding regions are important may come from Northern blot experiments that reveal messenger RNA molecules of abnormal size or abundance in cancer patients as compared to control individuals.
Alteration of BRG1 mRNA expression can be detected by any techniques known in the art. These include Northern blot analysis, PCR amplification, RNase protection and the microchip method discussed above. Diminished mRNA expression indicates an alteration of the wild-type BRG1 gene. Alteration of wild-type BRG1 genes can also be detected by screening for alteration of wild-type BRG1 protein. For example, monoclonal antibodies immunoreactive with BRG1 can be used to screen a tissue. Lack of cognate antigen would indicate a BRG1 mutation. Antibodies specific for products of mutant alleles could also be used to detect mutant BRG1 gene product. Such immunological assays can be done in any convenient formats known in the art. These include Western blots, immunohistochemical assays and ELISA assays. Any means for detecting an altered BRG1 protein can be used to detect alteration of wild-type BRG1 genes. Functional assays can be used. For example, it is known that BRG1 protein binds specifically to the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein RB (Dunaief et al., 1994). Thus, an assay for this binding ability can be employed. Finding a mutant BRG1 gene product indicates alteration of a wild-type BRG1 gene.
Mutant BRG1 genes or gene products can also be detected in other human body samples, such as serum, stool, urine and sputum. The same techniques discussed above for detection of mutant BRG1 genes or gene products in tissues can be applied to other body samples. Cancer cells are sloughed off from tumors and appear in such body samples. In addition, the BRG1 gene product itself may be secreted into the extracellular space and found in these body samples even in the absence of cancer cells. By screening such body samples, a simple early diagnosis can be achieved for many types of cancers. In addition, the progress of chemotherapy or radiotherapy can be monitored more easily by testing such body samples for mutant BRG1 genes or gene products.
The methods of diagnosis of the present invention are applicable to any tumor in which BRG1 has a role in tumorigenesis. The diagnostic method of the present invention is useful for clinicians, so they can decide upon an appropriate course of treatment.
The primer pairs of the present invention are useful for determination of the nucleotide sequence of a particular BRG1 allele using the PCR. The pairs of single-stranded DNA primers can be annealed to sequences within or surrounding the BRG1 gene in order to prime amplifying DNA synthesis of the BRG1 gene itself. A complete set of these primers allows synthesis of all of the nucleotides of the BRG1 gene coding sequences, i.e., the exons. The set of primers preferably allows synthesis of both intron and exon sequences. Allele-specific primers can also be used. Such primers anneal only to particular BRG1 mutant alleles, and thus will only amplify a product in the presence of the mutant allele as a template.
In order to facilitate subsequent cloning of amplified sequences, primers may have restriction enzyme site sequences appended to their 5xe2x80x2 ends. Thus, all nucleotides of the primers are derived from BRG1 sequences or sequences adjacent to BRG1, except for the few nucleotides necessary to form a restriction enzyme site. Such enzymes and sites are well known in the art. The primers themselves can be synthesized using techniques which are well known in the art. Generally, the primers can be made using oligonucleotide synthesizing machines which are commercially available. Given the sequence of BRG1 shown in SEQ ID NO:1 design of particular primers is well within the skill of the art.
The nucleic acid probes provided by the present invention are useful for a number of purposes. They can be used in Southern hybridization to genomic DNA and in the RNase protection method for detecting point mutations. The probes can be used to detect PCR amplification products. They may also be used to detect mismatches with the BRG1 gene or mRNA using other techniques.
Definitions
The present invention employs the following definitions:
xe2x80x9cAmplification of Polynucleotidesxe2x80x9d utilizes methods such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligation amplification (or ligase chain reaction, LCR) and amplification methods based on the use of Q-beta replicase. Also useful are strand displacement amplification (SDA), thermophilic SDA, and nucleic acid sequence based amplification (3SR or NASBA). These methods are well known and widely practiced in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195 and 4,683,202 and Innis et al., 1990 (for PCR); and Wu and Wallace, 1989 (for LCR); U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,270,184 and 5,455,166 and Walker et al., 1992 (for SDA); Spargo et al., 1996 (for thermophilic SDA) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,409,818, Fahy et al., 1991 and Compton, 1991 for 3SR and NASBA. Reagents and hardware for conducting PCR are commercially available. Primers useful to amplify sequences from the BRG1 region are preferably complementary to, and hybridize specifically to, sequences in the BRG1 region or in regions that flank a target region therein. BRG1 sequences generated by amplification may be sequenced directly. Alternatively, but less desirably, the amplified sequence(s) may be cloned prior to sequence analysis. A method for the direct cloning and sequence analysis of enzymatically amplified genomic segments has been described by Scharf, 1986.
xe2x80x9cAnalyte polynucleotidexe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9canalyte strandxe2x80x9d refer to a single- or double-stranded polynucleotide which is suspected of containing a target sequence, and which may be present in a variety of types of samples, including biological samples.
xe2x80x9cAntibodies.xe2x80x9d The present invention also provides polyclonal and/or monoclonal antibodies and fragments thereof, and immunologic binding equivalents thereof, which are capable of specifically binding to the BRG1 polypeptides and fragments thereof or to polynucleotide sequences from the BRG1 region, particularly from the BRG1 locus or a portion thereof The term xe2x80x9cantibodyxe2x80x9d is used both to refer to a homogeneous molecular entity, or a mixture such as a serum product made up of a plurality of different molecular entities. Polypeptides may be prepared synthetically in a peptide synthesizer and coupled to a carrier molecule (e.g., keyhole limpet hemocyanin) and injected over several months into rabbits. Rabbit sera is tested for immunoreactivity to the BRG1 polypeptide or fragment. Monoclonal antibodies may be made by injecting mice with the protein polypeptides, fusion proteins or fragments thereof. Monoclonal antibodies will be screened by ELISA and tested for specific immunoreactivity with BRG1 polypeptide or fragments thereof. See, Harlow and Lane, 1988. These antibodies will be useful in assays as well as pharmaceuticals.
Once a sufficient quantity of desired polypeptide has been obtained, it may be used for various purposes. A typical use is the production of antibodies specific for binding. These antibodies may be either polyclonal or monoclonal, and may be produced by in vitro or in vivo techniques well known in the art.
For production of polyclonal antibodies, an appropriate target immune system, typically mouse or rabbit, is selected. Substantially purified antigen is presented to the immune system in a fashion determined by methods appropriate for the animal and by other parameters well known to immunologists. Typical sites for injection are in footpads, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, or intradermally. Of course, other species may be substituted for mouse or rabbit. Polyclonal antibodies are then purified using techniques known in the art, adjusted for the desired specificity.
An immunological response is usually assayed with an immunoassay. Normally, such immunoassays involve some purification of a source of antigen, for example, that produced by the same cells and in the same fashion as the antigen. A variety of immunoassay methods are well known in the art. See, e.g., Harlow and Lane, 1988, or Goding, 1986.
Monoclonal antibodies with affinities of 10xe2x88x928 Mxe2x88x921 or preferably 10xe2x88x929 to 10xe2x88x9210 Mxe2x88x921 or stronger will typically be made by standard procedures as described, e.g., in Harlow and Lane, 1988 or Goding, 1986. Briefly, appropriate animals will be selected and the desired immunization protocol followed. After the appropriate period of time, the spleens of such animals are excised and individual spleen cells fused, typically, to immortalized myeloma cells under appropriate selection conditions. Thereafter, the cells are clonally separated and the supernatants of each clone tested for their production of an appropriate antibody specific for the desired region of the antigen.
Other suitable techniques involve in vitro exposure of lymphocytes to the antigenic polypeptides, or alternatively, to selection of libraries of antibodies in phage or similar vectors. See Huse et al., 1989. The polypeptides and antibodies of the present invention may be used with or without modification. Frequently, polypeptides and antibodies will be labeled by joining, either covalently or non-covalently, a substance which provides for a detectable signal. A wide variety of labels and conjugation techniques are known and are reported extensively in both the scientific and patent literature. Suitable labels include radionuclides, enzymes, substrates, cofactors, inhibitors, fluorescent agents, chemiluminescent agents, magnetic particles and the like. Patents teaching the use of such labels include U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,817,837; 3,850,752; 3,939,350; 3,996,345; 4,277,437; 4,275,149; and 4,366,241. Also, recombinant immunoglobulins may be produced (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567).
xe2x80x9cBinding partnerxe2x80x9d refers to a molecule capable of binding a ligand molecule with high specificity, as for example, an antigen and an antigen-specific antibody or an enzyme and its inhibitor. In general, the specific binding partners must bind with sufficient affinity to immobilize the analyte copy/complementary strand duplex (in the case of polynucleotide hybridization) under the isolation conditions. Specific binding partners are known in the art and include, for example, biotin and avidin or streptavidin, IgG and protein A, the numerous, known receptor-ligand couples, and complementary polynucleotide strands. In the case of complementary polynucleotide binding partners, the partners are normally at least about 15 bases in length, and may be at least 40 bases in length. It is well recognized by those of skill in the art that lengths shorter than 15 (e.g., 8 bases), between 15 and 40, and greater than 40 bases may also be used. The polynucleotides may be composed of DNA, RNA, or synthetic nucleotide analogs. Further binding partners can be identified using, e.g., the two-hybrid yeast screening assay as described herein.
A xe2x80x9cbiological samplexe2x80x9d refers to a sample of tissue or fluid suspected of containing an analyte polynucleotide or polypeptide from an individual including, but not limited to, e.g., plasma, serum, spinal fluid, lymph fluid, the external sections of the skin, respiratory, intestinal, and genitourinary tracts, tears, saliva, blood cells, tumors, organs, tissue and samples of in vitro cell culture constituents.
As used herein, the terms xe2x80x9cdiagnosingxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9cprognosing,xe2x80x9d as used in the context of neoplasia, are used to indicate 1) the classification of lesions as neoplasia, 2) the determination of the severity of the neoplasia, or 3) the monitoring of the disease progression, prior to, during and after treatment.
xe2x80x9cEncodexe2x80x9d. A polynucleotide is said to xe2x80x9cencodexe2x80x9d a polypeptide if, in its native state or when manipulated by methods well known to those skilled in the art, it can be transcribed and/or translated to produce the mRNA for and/or the polypeptide or a fragment thereof. The anti-sense strand is the complement of such a nucleic acid, and the encoding sequence can be deduced therefrom.
xe2x80x9cIsolatedxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9csubstantially purexe2x80x9d. An xe2x80x9cisolatedxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9csubstantially purexe2x80x9d nucleic acid (e.g., an RNA, DNA or a mixed polymer) is one which is substantially separated from other cellular components which naturally accompany a native human sequence or protein, e.g., ribosomes, polymerases, many other human genome sequences and proteins. The term embraces a nucleic acid sequence or protein which has been removed from its naturally occurring environment, and includes recombinant or cloned DNA isolates and chemically synthesized analogs or analogs biologically synthesized by heterologous systems.
xe2x80x9cBRG1 Allelexe2x80x9d refers to normal alleles of the BRG1 locus as well as alleles carrying variations that predispose individuals to develop cancer. Such predisposing alleles are also called xe2x80x9cBRG1 susceptibility allelesxe2x80x9d.
xe2x80x9cBRG1 Locus,xe2x80x9d xe2x80x9cBRG1 gene,xe2x80x9d xe2x80x9cBRG1 Nucleic Acidsxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9cBRG1 Polynucleotidexe2x80x9d refers to polynucleotides, all of which are in the BRG1 region, that are likely to be expressed in normal tissue, certain alleles of which predispose an individual to develop prostate cancer. Mutations at the BRG1 locus may be involved in the initiation and/or progression of other types of tumors. The locus is indicated in part by mutations that predispose individuals to develop cancer. These mutations fall within the BRG1 region described infra. The BRG1 locus is intended to include coding sequences, intervening sequences and regulatory elements controlling transcription and/or translation. The BRG1 locus is intended to include all allelic variations of the DNA sequence.
These terms, when applied to a nucleic acid, refer to a nucleic acid which encodes a BRG1 polypeptide, fragment, homolog or variant, including, e.g., protein fusions or deletions. The nucleic acids of the present invention will possess a sequence which is either derived from, or substantially similar to, a natural BRG1-encoding gene or one having substantial homology with a natural BRG1-encoding gene or a portion thereof. The cDNA for BRG1 is shown in SEQ ID NO:1 and the encoded polypeptide sequence is given as SEQ ID NO:2.
The BRG1 gene or nucleic acid includes normal alleles of the BRG1 gene including silent alleles having no effect on the amino acid sequence of BRG1 as well as alleles leading to amino acid sequence variants of BRG1 that do not substantially affect its function. These terms also include alleles having one or more mutations which adversely affect the function of BRG1. A mutation may be a change in the BRG1 nucleic acid sequence which produces a deleterious change in the amino acid sequence of BRG1, resulting in partial or complete loss of BRG1 function, or may be a change in the nucleic acid sequence which results in the loss of effective BRG1 expression or the production of aberrant forms of BRG1.
The BRG1 nucleic acid may be that shown in SEQ ID NO:1 or it may be an allele as described above or a variant or derivative differing from that shown by a change which is one or more of addition, insertion, deletion and substitution of one or more nucleotides of the sequence shown. Changes to the nucleotide sequence may result in an amino acid change at the protein level, or not, as determined by the genetic code.
Thus, nucleic acid according to the present invention may include a sequence different from the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:1 yet encode a polypeptide with the same amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2. That is, nucleic acids of the present invention include sequences which are degenerate as a result of the genetic code. On the other hand, the encoded polypeptide may comprise an amino acid sequence which differs by one or more amino acid residues from the amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:2. Nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide which is an amino acid sequence variant, derivative or allele of the amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:2 is also provided by the present invention.
The BRG1 gene also refers to (a) any DNA sequence that (i) hybridizes to the complement of the DNA sequences that encode the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 under highly stringent conditions (Ausubel et al., 1992) and (ii) encodes a gene product functionally equivalent to BRG1, or (b) any DNA sequence that (i) hybridizes to the complement of the DNA sequences that encode the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 under less stringent conditions, such as moderately stringent conditions (Ausubel et al., 1992) and (ii) encodes a gene product functionally equivalent to BRG1. The invention also includes nucleic acid molecules that are the complements of the sequences described herein.
The polynucleotide compositions of this invention include RNA, cDNA, genomic DNA, synthetic forms, and mixed polymers, both sense and antisense strands, and may be chemically or biochemically modified or may contain non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases, as will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art. Such modifications include, for example, labels, methylation, substitution of one or more of the naturally occurring nucleotides with an analog, internucleotide modifications such as uncharged linkages (e.g., methyl phosphonates, phosphotriesters, phosphoamidates, carbamates, etc.), charged linkages (e.g., phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, etc.), pendent moieties (e.g., polypeptides), intercalators (e.g., acridine, psoralen, etc.). chelators, alkylators, and modified linkages (e.g., alpha anomeric nucleic acids, etc.). Also included are synthetic molecules that mimic polynucleotides in their ability to bind to a designated sequence via hydrogen bonding and other chemical interactions. Such molecules are known in the art and include, for example, those in which peptide linkages substitute for phosphate linkages in the backbone of the molecule.
The present invention provides recombinant nucleic acids comprising all or part of the BRG1 region. The recombinant construct may be capable of replicating autonomously in a host cell. Alternatively, the recombinant construct may become integrated into the chromosomal DNA of the host cell. Such a recombinant polynucleotide comprises a polynucleotide of genomic, cDNA, semi-synthetic, or synthetic origin which, by virtue of its origin or manipulation 1) is not associated with all or a portion of a polynucleotide with which it is associated in nature; 2) is linked to a polynucleotide other than that to which it is linked in nature; or 3) does not occur in nature. Where nucleic acid according to the invention includes RNA, reference to the sequence shown should be construed as reference to the RNA equivalent, with U substituted for T.
Therefore, recombinant nucleic acids comprising sequences otherwise not naturally occurring are provided by this invention. Although the wild-type sequence may be employed, it will often be altered, e.g., by deletion, substitution or insertion.
cDNA or genomic libraries of various types may be screened as natural sources of the nucleic acids of the present invention, or such nucleic acids may be provided by amplification of sequences resident in genomic DNA or other natural sources, e.g., by PCR. The choice of cDNA libraries normally corresponds to a tissue source which is abundant in mRNA for the desired proteins. Phage libraries are normally preferred, but other types of libraries may be used. Clones of a library are spread onto plates, transferred to a substrate for screening, denatured and probed for the presence of desired sequences.
The DNA sequences used in this invention will usually comprise at least about five codons (15 nucleotides), more usually at least about 7-15 codons, and most preferably, at least about 35 codons. One or more introns may also be present. This number of nucleotides is usually about the minimal length required for a successful probe that would hybridize specifically with a BRG1-encoding sequence. In this context, oligomers of as low as 8 nucleotides, more generally 8-17 nucleotides, can be used for probes, especially in connection with chip technology.
Techniques for nucleic acid manipulation are described generally, for example, in Sambrook et al., 1989 or Ausubel et al., 1992. Reagents useful in applying such techniques, such as restriction enzymes and the like, are widely known in the art and commercially available from such vendors as New England BioLabs, Boehringer Mannheim, Amersham, Promega Biotech, U. S. Biochemicals, New England Nuclear, and a number of other sources. The recombinant nucleic acid sequences used to produce fusion proteins of the present invention may be derived from natural or synthetic sequences. Many natural gene sequences are obtainable from various cDNA or from genomic libraries using appropriate probes. See, GenBank, National Institutes of Health.
As used herein, the terms xe2x80x9cBRG1 locus,xe2x80x9d xe2x80x9cBRG1 allelexe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9cBRG1 regionxe2x80x9d all refer to the double-stranded DNA comprising the locus, allele, or region, as well as either of the single-stranded DNAs comprising the locus, allele or region.
As used herein, a xe2x80x9cportionxe2x80x9d of the BRG1 locus or region or allele is defined as having a minimal size of at least about eight nucleotides, or preferably about 15 nucleotides, or more preferably at least about 25 nucleotides, and may have a minimal size of at least about 40 nucleotides. This definition includes all sizes in the range of 8-40 nucleotides as well as greater than 40 nucleotides. Thus, this definition includes nucleic acids of 8, 12, 15, 20, 25, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 nucleotides or nucleic acids having any number of nucleotides within these ranges of values (e.g., 9, 10, 11, 16, 23, 30, 38, 50, 72, 121, etc., nucleotides), or nucleic acids having more than 500 nucleotides.
xe2x80x9cBRG1 proteinxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9cBRG1 polypeptidexe2x80x9d refers to a protein or polypeptide encoded by the BRG1 locus, variants or fragments thereof. The term xe2x80x9cpolypeptidexe2x80x9d refers to a polymer of amino acids and its equivalent and does not refer to a specific length of the product; thus, peptides, oligopeptides and proteins are included within the definition of a polypeptide. This term also does not refer to, or exclude modifications of the polypeptide, for example, glycosylations, acetylations, phosphorylations, and the like. Included within the definition are, for example, polypeptides containing one or more analogs of an amino acid (including, for example, unnatural amino acids, etc.), polypeptides with substituted linkages as well as other modifications known in the art, both naturally and non-naturally occurring. Ordinarily, such polypeptides will be at least about 50% homologous to the native BRG1 sequence, preferably in excess of about 90%, and more preferably at least about 95% homologous. Also included are proteins encoded by DNA which hybridize under high or low stringency conditions, to BRG1-encoding nucleic acids and closely related polypeptides or proteins retrieved by antisera to the BRG1 protein.
The BRG1 polypeptide may be that shown in SEQ ID NO:2 which may be in isolated and/or purified form, free or substantially free of material with which it is naturally associated. The polypeptide may, if produced by expression in a prokaryotic cell or produced synthetically, lack native post-translational processing, such as glycosylation. Alternatively, the present invention is also directed to polypeptides which are sequence variants, alleles or derivatives of the BRG1 polypeptide. Such polypeptides may have an amino acid sequence which differs from that set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 by one or more of addition, substitution, deletion or insertion of one or more amino acids. Preferred such polypeptides have BRG1 function.
Substitutional variants typically contain the exchange of one amino acid for another at one or more sites within the protein, and may be designed to modulate one or more properties of the polypeptide, such as stability against proteolytic cleavage, without the loss of other functions or properties. Amino acid substitutions may be made on the basis of similarity in polarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and/or the amphipathic nature of the residues involved. Preferred substitutions are ones which are conservative, that is, one amino acid is replaced with one of similar shape and charge. Conservative substitutions are well known in the art and typically include substitutions within the following groups: glycine, alanine; valine, isoleucine, leucine; aspartic acid, glutamic acid; asparagine, glutamine; serine, threonine; lysine, arginine; and tyrosine, phenylalanine.
Certain amino acids may be substituted for other amino acids in a protein structure without appreciable loss of interactive binding capacity with structures such as, for example, antigen-binding regions of antibodies or binding sites on substrate molecules or binding sites on proteins interacting with the BRG1 polypeptide. Since it is the interactive capacity and nature of a protein which defines that protein""s biological functional activity, certain amino acid substitutions can be made in a protein sequence, and its underlying DNA coding sequence, and nevertheless obtain a protein with like properties. In making such changes, the hydropathic index of amino acids may be considered. The importance of the hydrophobic amino acid index in conferring interactive biological function on a protein is generally understood in the art (Kyte and Doolittle, 1982). Alternatively, the substitution of like amino acids can be made effectively on the basis of hydrophilicity. The importance of hydrophilicity in conferring interactive biological function of a protein is generally understood in the art (U.S. Pat. No. 4,554,101). The use of the hydrophobic index or hydrophilicity in designing polypeptides is further discussed in U.S. Pat. No . 5,691,198.
The length of polypeptide sequences compared for homology will generally be at least about 16 amino acids, usually at least about 20 residues, more usually at least about 24 residues, typically at least about 28 residues, and preferably more than about 35 residues.
xe2x80x9cOperably linkedxe2x80x9d refers to a juxtaposition wherein the components so described are in a relationship permitting them to function in their intended manner. For instance, a promoter is operably linked to a coding sequence if the promoter affects its transcription or expression.
The term peptide mimetic or mimetic is intended to refer to a substance which has the essential biological activity of the BRG1 polypeptide. A peptide mimetic may be a peptide-containing molecule that mimics elements of protein secondary structure (Johnson et al., 1993). The underlying rationale behind the use of peptide mimetics is that the peptide backbone of proteins exists chiefly to orient amino acid side chains in such a way as to facilitate molecular interactions, such as those of antibody and antigen, enzyme and substrate or scaffolding proteins. A peptide mimetic is designed to permit molecular interactions similar to the natural molecule. A mimetic may not be a peptide at all, but it will retain the essential biological activity of natural BRG1 polypeptide.
xe2x80x9cProbesxe2x80x9d. Polynucleotide polymorphisms associated with BRG1 alleles which predispose to certain cancers or are associated with most cancers are detected by hybridization with a polynucleotide probe which forms a stable hybrid with that of the target sequence, under highly stringent to moderately stringent hybridization and wash conditions. If it is expected that the probes will be perfectly complementary to the target sequence, high stringency conditions will be used. Hybridization stringency may be lessened if some mismatching is expected, for example, if variants are expected with the result that the probe will not be completely complementary. Conditions are chosen which rule out nonspecific/adventitious bindings, that is, which minimize noise. (It should be noted that throughout this disclosure, if it is simply stated that xe2x80x9cstringentxe2x80x9d conditions are used that is meant to be read as xe2x80x9chigh stringencyxe2x80x9d conditions are used.) Since such indications identify neutral DNA polymorphisms as well as mutations, these indications need further analysis to demonstrate detection of a BRG1 susceptibility allele.
Probes for BRG1 alleles may be derived from the sequences of the BRG1 region, its cDNA, functionally equivalent sequences, or the complements thereof. The probes may be of any suitable length, which span all or a portion of the BRG1 region, and which allow specific hybridization to the BRG1 region. If the target sequence contains a sequence identical to that of the probe, the probes may be short, e.g., in the range of about 8-30 base pairs, since the hybrid will be relatively stable under even highly stringent conditions. If some degree of mismatch is expected with the probe, i.e., if it is suspected that the probe will hybridize to a variant region, a longer probe may be employed which hybridizes to the target sequence with the requisite specificity.
The probes will include an isolated polynucleotide attached to a label or reporter molecule and may be used to isolate other polynucleotide sequences, having sequence similarity by standard methods. For techniques for preparing and labeling probes see, e.g., Sambrook et al. (1989) or Ausubel et al. (1992). Other similar polynucleotides may be selected by using homologous polynucleotides. Alternatively, polynucleotides encoding these or similar polypeptides may be synthesized or selected by use of the redundancy in the genetic code. Various codon substitutions may be introduced, e.g., by silent changes (thereby producing various restriction sites) or to optimize expression for a particular system. Mutations may be introduced to modify the properties of the polypeptide, perhaps to change ligand-binding affinities, interchain affinities, or the polypeptide degradation or turnover rate.
Probes comprising synthetic oligonucleotides or other polynucleotides of the present invention may be derived from naturally occurring or recombinant single- or double-stranded polynucleotides, or be chemically synthesized. Probes may also be labeled by nick translation, Klenow fill-in reaction, or other methods known in the art.
Portions of the polynucleotide sequence having at least about eight nucleotides, usually at least about 15 nucleotides, and fewer than about 9 Kb, usually fewer than about 1.0 Kb, from a polynucleotide sequence encoding BRG1 are preferred as probes. This definition therefore includes probes of sizes 8 nucleotides through 9000 nucleotides. Thus, this definition includes probes of 8, 12, 15, 20, 25, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500 nucleotides or probes having any number of nucleotides within these ranges of values (e.g., 9, 10, 11, 16, 23, 30, 38, 50, 72, 121, etc. nucleotides) or probes having more than 500 nucleotides. The probes may also be used to determine whether mRNA encoding BRG1 is present in a cell or tissue.
Similar considerations and nucleotide lengths are also applicable to primers which may be used for the amplification of all or part of the BRG1 gene. Thus, a definition for primers includes primers of 8, 12, 15, 20, 25, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200,300, 400, 500 nucleotides, or primers having any number of nucleotides within these ranges of values (e.g., 9, 10, 11, 16, 23, 30, 38, 50, 72, 121, etc. nucleotides), or primers having more than 500 nucleotides, or any number of nucleotides between 500 and 9000. The primers may also be used to determine whether mRNA encoding BRG1 is present in a cell or tissue. The present invention includes all novel primers having at least 8 nucleotides derived from the BRG1 locus for amplifying the BRG1 gene, its complement or functionally equivalent nucleic acid sequences. The present invention does not include primers which exist in the prior art. That is, the present invention includes all primers having at least 8 nucleotides with the proviso that it does not include primers existing in the prior art.
xe2x80x9cProtein modifications or fragmentsxe2x80x9d are provided by the present invention for BRG1 polypeptides or fragments thereof which are substantially homologous to primary structural sequence but which include, e.g., in vivo or in vitro chemical and biochemical modifications or which incorporate unusual amino acids. Such modifications include, for example, acetylation, carboxylation, phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, labeling, e.g., with radionuclides, and various enzymatic modifications, as will be readily appreciated by those well skilled in the art. A variety of methods for labeling polypeptides and of substituents or labels useful for such purposes are well known in the art, and include radioactive isotopes such as 32P, ligands, which bind to labeled antiligands (e.g., antibodies), fluorophores, chemiluminescent agents, enzymes, and antiligands which can serve as specific binding pair members for a labeled ligand. The choice of label depends on the sensitivity required, ease of conjugation with the primer, stability requirements, and available instrumentation. Methods of labeling polypeptides are well known in the art. See, e.g., Sambrook et al. (1989) or Ausubel et al. (1992).
Besides substantially full-length polypeptides, the present invention provides for biologically active fragments of the polypeptides. Significant biological activities include RB binding activity, immunological activity and other biological activities characteristic of BRG1 polypeptides. Immunological activities include both immunogenic function in a target immune system, as well as sharing of immunological epitopes for binding, serving as either a competitor or substitute antigen for an epitope of the BRG1 protein. As used herein, xe2x80x9cepitopexe2x80x9d refers to an antigenic determinant of a polypeptide. An epitope could comprise three amino acids in a spatial conformation which is unique to the epitope. Generally, an epitope consists of at least five such amino acids, and more usually consists of at least 8-10 such amino acids. Methods of determining the spatial conformation of such amino acids are known in the art.
For immunological purposes, tandem-repeat polypeptide segments may be used as immunogens, thereby producing highly antigenic proteins. Alternatively, such polypeptides will serve as highly efficient competitors for specific binding. Production of antibodies specific for BRG1 polypeptides or fragments thereof is described below.
The present invention also provides for fusion polypeptides, comprising BRG1 polypeptides and fragments. Homologous polypeptides may be fusions between two or more BRG1 polypeptide sequences or between the sequences of BRG1 and a related protein. Likewise, heterologous fusions may be constructed which would exhibit a combination of properties or activities of the derivative proteins. For example, ligand-binding or other domains may be xe2x80x9cswappedxe2x80x9d between different new fusion polypeptides or fragments. Such homologous or heterologous fusion polypeptides may display, for example, altered strength or specificity of binding. Fusion partners include immunoglobulins, bacterial xcex2-galactosidase, trpE, protein A, xcex2-lactamase, alpha amylase, alcohol dehydrogenase and yeast alpha mating factor. See, e.g., Godowski et al. (1988).
Fusion proteins will typically be made by either recombinant nucleic acid methods, as described below, or may be chemically synthesized. Techniques for the synthesis of polypeptides are described, for example, in Merrifield (1963).
xe2x80x9cProtein purificationxe2x80x9d refers to various methods for the isolation of the BRG1 polypeptides from other biological material, such as from cells transformed with recombinant nucleic acids encoding BRG1, and are well known in the art. For example, such polypeptides may be purified by immunoaffinity chromatography employing, e.g., the antibodies provided by the present invention. Various methods of protein purification are well known in the art, and include those described in Deutscher (1990) and Scopes (1982).
The terms xe2x80x9cisolatedxe2x80x9d, xe2x80x9csubstantially purexe2x80x9d, and xe2x80x9csubstantially homogeneousxe2x80x9d are used interchangeably to describe a protein or polypeptide which has been separated from components which accompany it in its natural state. A monomeric protein is substantially pure when at least about 60 to 75% of a sample exhibits a single polypeptide sequence. A substantially pure protein will typically comprise about 60 to 90% W/W of a protein sample, more usually about 95%, and preferably will be over about 99% pure. Protein purity or homogeneity may be indicated by a number of means well known in the art, such as polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or a protein sample, followed by visualizing a single polypeptide band upon staining the gel. For certain purposes, higher resolution may be provided by using HPLC or other means well known in the art which are utilized for purification.
A BRG1 protein is substantially free of naturally associated components when it is separated from the native contaminants which accompany it in its natural state. Thus, a polypeptide which is chemically synthesized or synthesized in a cellular system different from the cell from which it naturally originates will be substantially free from its naturally associated components. A protein may also be rendered substantially free of naturally associated components by isolation, using protein purification techniques well known in the art.
A polypeptide produced as an expression product of an isolated and manipulated genetic sequence is an xe2x80x9cisolated polypeptide,xe2x80x9d as used herein, even if expressed in a homologous cell type. Synthetically made forms or molecules expressed by heterologous cells are inherently isolated molecules.
xe2x80x9cRecombinant nucleic acidxe2x80x9d is a nucleic acid which is not naturally occurring, or which is made by the artificial combination of two otherwise separated segments of sequence. This artificial combination is often accomplished by either chemical synthesis means, or by the artificial manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids, e.g., by genetic engineering techniques. Such is usually done to replace a codon with a redundant codon encoding the same or a conservative amino acid, while typically introducing or removing a sequence recognition site. Alternatively, it is performed to join together nucleic acid segments of desired functions to generate a desired combination of functions.
xe2x80x9cRegulatory sequencesxe2x80x9d refers to those sequences normally within 100 Kb of the coding region of a locus, but they may also be more distant from the coding region, which affect the expression of the gene (including transcription of the gene, and translation, splicing, stability or the like of the messenger RNA).
xe2x80x9cSubstantial homology or similarityxe2x80x9d. A nucleic acid or fragment thereof is xe2x80x9csubstantially homologousxe2x80x9d (xe2x80x9cor substantially similarxe2x80x9d) to another if, when optimally aligned (with appropriate nucleotide insertions or deletions) with the other nucleic acid (or its complementary strand), there is nucleotide sequence identity in at least about 60% of the nucleotide bases, usually at least about 70%, more usually at least about 80%, preferably at least about 90%, and more preferably at least about 95-98% of the nucleotide bases.
To determine homology between two different nucleic acids, the percent homology is to be determined using the BLASTN program xe2x80x9cBLAST 2 sequencesxe2x80x9d. This program is available for public use from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) over the Internet (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gorf/bl2.html) (Altschul et al., 1997). The parameters to be used are whatever combination of the following yields the highest calculated percent homology (as calculated below) with the default parameters shown in parentheses:
Programxe2x80x94blastn
Matrixxe2x80x940 BLOSUM62
Reward for a matchxe2x80x940 or 1 (1)
Penalty for a mismatchxe2x80x940, xe2x88x921, xe2x88x922 or xe2x88x923 (xe2x88x922)
Open gap penaltyxe2x80x940, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 (5)
Extension gap penaltyxe2x80x940 or 1 (1)
Gap x_dropoffxe2x80x940 or 50 (50)
Expectxe2x80x9410
Along with a variety of other results, this program shows a percent identity across the complete strands or across regions of the two nucleic acids being matched. The program shows as part of the results an alignment and identity of the two strands being compared. If the strands are of equal length then the identity will be calculated across the complete length of the nucleic acids. If the strands are of unequal lengths, then the length of the shorter nucleic acid is to be used. If the nucleic acids are quite similar across a portion of their sequences but different across the rest of their sequences, the blastn program xe2x80x9cBLAST 2 Sequencesxe2x80x9d will show an identity across only the similar portions, and these portions are reported individually. For purposes of determining homology herein, the percent homology refers to the shorter of the two sequences being compared. If any one region is shown in different alignments with differing percent identities, the alignments which yield the greatest homology are to be used. The averaging is to be performed as in this example of SEQ ID NOs:3 and 4.
5xe2x80x2-ACCGTAGCTACGTACGTATATAGAAAGGGCGCGATCGTCGTCGCGTATGACGAC TTAGCATGC-3xe2x80x2 (SEQ ID NO:3)
5xe2x80x2-ACCGGTAGCTACGTACGTTATTTAGAAAGGGGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTAAACCGGG GTTTTCGGGATCGTCCGTCGCGTATGACGACTTAGCCATGCACGGTATATCGTATTA GGACTAGCGATTGACTAG-3xe2x80x2 (SEQ ID NO:4)
The program xe2x80x9cBLAST 2 Sequencesxe2x80x9d shows differing alignments of these two nucleic acids depending upon the parameters which are selected. As examples, four sets of parameters were selected for comparing SEQ ID NOs:3 and 4 (gap x_dropoff was 50 for all cases), with the results shown in Table 1. It is to be noted that none of the sets of parameters selected as shown in Table 1 is necessarily the best set of parameters for comparing these sequences. The percent homology is calculated by multiplying for each region showing identity the fraction of bases of the shorter strand within a region times the percent identity for that region and adding all of these together. For example, using the first set of parameters shown in Table 1, SEQ ID NO:3 is the short sequence (63 bases), and two regions of identity are shown, the first encompassing bases 4-29 (26 bases) of SEQ ID NO:3 with 92% identity to SEQ ID NO:4 and the second encompassing bases 39-59 (21 bases) of SEQ ID NO:3 with 100% identity to SEQ ID NO:4. Bases 1-3, 30-38 and 60-63 (16 bases) are not shown as having any identity with SEQ ID NO:4. Percent homology is calculated as: (26/63)(92)+(21/63)(100)+(16/63)(0)=71.3% homology. The percents of homology calculate using each of the four sets of parameters shown are listed in Table 1. Several other combinations of parameters are possible, but they are not listed for the sake of brevity. It is seen that each set of parameters resulted in a different calculated percent homology. Because the result yielding the highest percent homology is to be used, based solely on these four sets of parameters one would state that SEQ ID NOs:3 and 4 have 87.1% homology. Again it is to be noted that use of other parameters may show an even higher homology for SEQ ID NOs:3 and 4, but for brevity not all the possible results are shown.
Alternatively, substantial homology or (similarity) exists when a nucleic acid or fragment thereof will hybridize to another nucleic acid (or a complementary strand thereof) under selective hybridization conditions, to a strand, or to its complement. Selectivity of hybridization exists when hybridization which is substantially more selective than total lack of specificity occurs. Typically, selective hybridization will occur when there is at least about 55% homology over a stretch of at least about 14 nucleotides, preferably at least about 65%, more preferably at least about 75%, and most preferably at least about 90%. See, Kanehisa, 1984. The length of homology comparison, as described, may be over longer stretches, and in certain embodiments will often be over a stretch of at least about eight nucleotides, usually at least about 20 nucleotides, more usually at least about 24 nucleotides, typically at least about 28 nucleotides, more typically at least about 32 nucleotides, and preferably at least about 36 or more nucleotides.
Nucleic acid hybridization will be affected by such conditions as salt concentration, temperature, or organic solvents, in addition to the base composition, length of the complementary strands, and the number of nucleotide base mismatches between the hybridizing nucleic acids, as will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art. Stringent temperature conditions will generally include temperatures in excess of 30xc2x0 C., typically in excess of 37xc2x0 C., and preferably in excess of 45xc2x0 C. Stringent salt conditions will ordinarily be less than 1000 mM, typically less than 500 mM, and preferably less than 200 mM. However, the combination of parameters is much more important than the measure of any single parameter. The stringency conditions are dependent on the length of the nucleic acid and the base composition of the nucleic acid and can be determined by techniques well known in the art. See, e.g., Wetmur and Davidson, 1968.
Probe sequences may also hybridize specifically to duplex DNA under certain conditions to form triplex or other higher order DNA complexes. The preparation of such probes and suitable hybridization conditions are well known in the art.
The terms xe2x80x9csubstantial homologyxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9csubstantial identityxe2x80x9d, when referring to polypeptides, indicate that the polypeptide or protein in question exhibits at least about 30% identity with an entire naturally-occurring protein or a portion thereof, usually at least about 70% identity, more usually at least about 80% identity, preferably at least about 90% identity, and more preferably at least about 95% identity.
Homology, for polypeptides, is typically measured using sequence analysis software. See, e.g., the Sequence Analysis Software Package of the Genetics Computer Group, University of Wisconsin Biotechnology Center, 910 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. 53705. Protein analysis software matches similar sequences using measures of homology assigned to various substitutions, deletions and other modifications. Conservative substitutions typically include substitutions within the following groups: glycine, alanine; valine, isoleucine, leucine; aspartic acid, glutamic acid; asparagine, glutamine; serine, threonine; lysine, arginine; and phenylalanine, tyrosine.
xe2x80x9cSubstantially similar functionxe2x80x9d refers to the function of a modified nucleic acid or a modified protein, with reference to the wild-type BRG1 nucleic acid or wild-type BRG1 polypeptide. The modified polypeptide will be substantially homologous to the wild-type BRG1 polypeptide and will have substantially the same function. The modified polypeptide may have an altered amino acid sequence and/or may contain modified amino acids. In addition to the function of binding to RB, the modified polypeptide may have other useful properties, such as a longer half-life. The RB binding activity of the modified polypeptide may be substantially the same as the activity of the wild-type BRG1 polypeptide. Alternatively, the RB binding activity of the modified polypeptide may be higher or lower than the activity of the wild-type BRG1 polypeptide. The modified polypeptide is synthesized using conventional techniques, or is encoded by a modified nucleic acid and produced using conventional techniques. The modified nucleic acid is prepared by conventional techniques. A nucleic acid with a function substantially similar to the wild-type BRG1 gene function produces the modified protein described above.
A polypeptide xe2x80x9cfragment,xe2x80x9d xe2x80x9cportionxe2x80x9d or xe2x80x9csegmentxe2x80x9d is a stretch of amino acid residues of at least about five to seven contiguous amino acids, often at least about seven to nine contiguous amino acids, typically at least about nine to 13 contiguous amino acids and, most preferably, at least about 20 to 30 or more contiguous amino acids.
The polypeptides of the present invention, if soluble, may be coupled to a solid-phase support, e.g., nitrocellulose, nylon, column packing materials (e.g., Sepharose beads), magnetic beads, glass wool, plastic, metal, polymer gels, cells, or other substrates. Such supports may take the form, for example, of beads, wells, dipsticks, or membranes.
xe2x80x9cTarget regionxe2x80x9d refers to a region of the nucleic acid which is amplified and/or detected. The term xe2x80x9ctarget sequencexe2x80x9d refers to a sequence with which a probe or primer will form a stable hybrid under desired conditions.
The practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of chemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA, genetics, and immunology. See, e.g., Maniatis et al. (1982); Sambrook et al. (1989); Ausubel et al. (1992); Glover (1985); Anand (1992); Guthrie and Fink (1991). A general discussion of techniques and materials for human gene mapping is provided, e.g., in White and Lalouel (1988).
Preparation of Recombinant or Chemically Synthesized Nucleic Acids, Vectors Transformation, Host Cells
Large amounts of the polynucleotides of the present invention may be produced by replication in a suitable host cell. Natural or synthetic polynucleotide fragments coding for a desired fragment will be incorporated into recombinant polynucleotide constructs, usually DNA constructs, capable of introduction into and replication in a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell. Usually the polynucleotide constructs will be suitable for replication in a unicellular host, such as yeast or bacteria, but may also be intended for introduction to (with and without integration within the genome) cultured mammalian or plant or other eukaryotic cell lines. The purification of nucleic acids produced by the methods of the present invention are described, e.g., in Sambrook et al. (1989) or Ausubel et al. (1992).
The polynucleotides of the present invention may also be produced by chemical synthesis, e.g., by the phosphoramidite method described by Beaucage and Caruthers (1981) or the triester method according to Matteucci and Caruthers (1981), and may be performed on commercial, automated oligonucleotide synthesizers. A double-stranded fragment may be obtained from the single-stranded product of chemical synthesis either by synthesizing the complementary strand and annealing the strands together under appropriate conditions or by adding the complementary strand using DNA polymerase with an appropriate primer sequence.
Polynucleotide constructs prepared for introduction into a prokaryotic or eukaryotic host may comprise a replication system recognized by the host, including the intended polynucleotide fragment encoding the desired polypeptide, and will preferably also include transcription and translational initiation regulatory sequences operably linked to the polypeptide encoding segment. Expression vectors may include, for example, an origin of replication or autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) and expression control sequences, a promoter, an enhancer and necessary processing information sites, such as ribosome-binding sites, RNA splice sites, polyadenylation sites, transcriptional terminator sequences, and mRNA stabilizing sequences. Secretion signals may also be included where appropriate which allow the protein to cross and/or lodge in cell membranes or be secreted from the cell. Such vectors may be prepared by means of standard recombinant techniques well known in the art and discussed, for example, in Sambrook et al. (1989) or Ausubel et al. (1992).
An appropriate promoter and other necessary vector sequences will be selected so as to be functional in the host, and may include, when appropriate, those naturally associated with BRG1 genes. Examples of workable combinations of cell lines and expression vectors are described in Sambrook et al. (1989) or Ausubel et al. (1992); see also, e.g., Metzger et al. (1988). Many useful vectors are known in the art and may be obtained from such vendors as Stratagene, New England Biolabs, Promega Biotech, and others. Promoters such as the trp, lac and phage promoters, tRNA promoters and glycolytic enzyme promoters may be used in prokaryotic hosts. Useful yeast promoters include promoter regions for metallothionein, 3-phosphoglycerate kinase or other glycolytic enzymes such as enolase or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, enzymes responsible for maltose and galactose utilization, and others. Vectors and promoters suitable for use in yeast expression are further described in Hitzeman et al., EP 73,675A. Appropriate non-native mammalian promoters might include the early and late promoters from SV40 (Fiers et al., 1978) or promoters derived from murine molony leukemia virus, mouse tumor virus, avian sarcoma viruses, adenovirus II, bovine papilloma virus or polyoma. Insect promoters may be derived from baculovirus. In addition, the construct may be joined to an amplifiable gene (e.g., DHFR) so that multiple copies of the gene may be made. For appropriate enhancer and other expression control sequences, see also Enhancers and Eukaryotic Gene Expression, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1983). See also, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,691,198; 5,753,500; 5,747,469 and 5,436,146.
While such expression vectors may replicate autonomously, they may also replicate by being inserted into the genome of the host cell, by methods well known in the art.
Expression and cloning vectors will likely contain a selectable marker, a gene encoding a protein necessary for survival or growth of a host cell transformed with the vector. The presence of this gene ensures growth of only those host cells which express the inserts. Typical selection genes encode proteins that a) confer resistance to antibiotics or other toxic substances, e.g. ampicillin, neomycin, methotrexate, etc., b) complement auxotrophic deficiencies, or c) supply critical nutrients not available from complex media, e.g., the gene encoding D-alanine racemase for Bacilli. The choice of the proper selectable marker will depend on the host cell, and appropriate markers for different hosts are well known in the art.
The vectors containing the nucleic acids of interest can be transcribed in vitro, and the resulting RNA introduced into the host cell by well-known methods, e.g., by injection (see, T. Kubo et al. (1988)), or the vectors can be introduced directly into host cells by methods well known in the art, which vary depending on the type of cellular host, including electroporation; transfection employing calcium chloride, rubidium chloride, calcium phosphate, DEAE-dextran, or other substances; microprojectile bombardment; lipofection; infection (where the vector isran infectious agent, such as a retroviral genome); and other methods. See generally, Sambrook et al. (1989) and Ausubel et al. (1992). The introduction of the polynucleotides into the host cell by any method known in the art, including, inter alia, those described above, will be referred to herein as xe2x80x9ctransformation.xe2x80x9d The cells into which have been introduced nucleic acids described above are meant to also include the progeny of such cells.
Large quantities of the nucleic acids and polypeptides of the present invention may be prepared by expressing the BRG1 nucleic acids or portions thereof in vectors or other expression vehicles in compatible prokaryotic or eukaryotic host cells. The most commonly used prokaryotic hosts are strains of Escherichia coli, although other prokaryotes, such as Bacillus subtilis or Pseudomonas may also be used.
Mammalian or other eukaryotic host cells, such as those of yeast, filamentous fungi, plant, insect, or amphibian or avian species, may also be useful for production of the proteins of the present invention. Propagation of mammalian cells in culture is per se well known. See, Jakoby and Pastan (eds.) (1979). Examples of commonly used mammalian host cell lines are VERO and HeLa cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, and WI38, BHK, and COS cell lines, although it will be appreciated by the skilled practitioner that other cell lines may be appropriate, e.g., to provide higher expression, desirable glycosylation patterns, or other features. An example of a commonly used insect cell line is SF9.
Clones are selected by using markers depending on the mode of the vector construction. The marker may be on the same or a different DNA molecule, preferably the same DNA molecule. In prokaryotic hosts, the transformant may be selected, e.g., by resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline or other antibiotics. Production of a particular product based on temperature sensitivity may also serve as an appropriate marker.
Prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells transformed with the polynucleotides of the present invention will be useful not only for the production of the nucleic acids and polypeptides of the present invention, but also, for example, in studying the characteristics of BRG1 polypeptides.
Antisense polynucleotide sequences are useful in preventing or diminishing the expression of the BRG1 locus, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. For example, polynucleotide vectors containing all or a portion of the BRG1 locus or other sequences from the BRG1 region (particularly those flanking the BRG1 locus) may be placed under the control of a promoter in an antisense orientation and introduced into a cell. Expression of such an antisense construct within a cell will interfere with BRG1 transcription and/or translation and/or replication.
Methods of Use: Nucleic Acid Diagnosis and Diagnostic Kits
In order to detect the presence of a BRG1 allele predisposing an individual to cancer, a biological sample such as blood is prepared and analyzed for the presence or absence of susceptibility alleles of BRG1. In order to detect the presence of neoplasia, the progression toward malignancy of a precursor lesion, or as a prognostic indicator., a biological sample of the lesion is prepared and analyzed for the presence or absence of neoplastic alleles of BRG1. Results of these tests and interpretive information are returned to the health care provider for communication to the tested individual. Such diagnoses may be performed by diagnostic laboratories, or, alternatively, diagnostic kits are manufactured and sold to health care providers or to private individuals for self-diagnosis.
Initially, the screening method involves amplification of the relevant BRG1 sequences, e.g., by PCR, followed by DNA sequence analysis. In another preferred embodiment of the invention, the screening method involves a non-PCR based strategy. Such screening methods include two-step label amplification methodologies that are well known in the art. Both PCR and non-PCR based screening strategies can detect target sequences with a high level of sensitivity.
The most popular method used today is target amplification. Here, the target nucleic acid sequence is amplified with polymerases. One particularly preferred method using polymerase-driven amplification is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The polymerase chain reaction and other polymerase-driven amplification assays can achieve over a million-fold increase in copy number through the use of polymerase-driven amplification cycles. Once amplified, the resulting nucleic acid can be sequenced or used as a substrate for DNA probes.
When the probes are used to detect the presence of the target sequences (for example, in screening for cancer susceptibility), the biological sample to be analyzed, such as blood or serum, may be treated, if desired, to extract the nucleic acids. The sample nucleic acid may be prepared in various ways to facilitate detection of the target sequence; e.g. denaturation, restriction digestion, electrophoresis or dot blotting. The targeted region of the analyte nucleic acid usually must be at least partially single-stranded to form hybrids with the targeting sequence of the probe. If the sequence is naturally single-stranded, denaturation will not be required. However, if the sequence is double-stranded, the sequence will probably need to be denatured. Denaturation can be carried out by various techniques known in the art.
Analyte nucleic acid and probe are incubated under conditions which promote stable hybrid formation of the target sequence in the probe with the putative targeted sequence in the analyte. The region of the probes which is used to bind to the analyte can be made completely complementary to the targeted region. Therefore, high stringency conditions are desirable in order to prevent false positives. However, conditions of high stringency are used only if the probes are complementary to regions of the chromosome which are unique in the genome. The stringency of hybridization is determined by a number of factors during hybridization and during the washing procedure, including temperature, ionic strength, base composition, probe length, and concentration of formamide. These factors are outlined in, for example, Maniatis et al. (1982) and Sambrook et al. (1989). Under certain circumstances, the formation of higher order hybrids, such as triplexes, quadraplexes, etc., may be desired to provide the means of detecting target sequences.
Detection, if any, of the resulting hybrid is usually accomplished by the use of labeled probes. Alternatively, the probe may be unlabeled, but may be detectable by specific binding with a ligand which is labeled, either directly or indirectly. Suitable labels, and methods for labeling probes and ligands are known in the art, and include, for example, radioactive labels which may be incorporated by known methods (e.g., nick translation, random priming or kinasing), biotin, fluorescent groups, chemiluminescent groups (e.g., dioxetanes, particularly triggered dioxetanes), enzymes, antibodies, gold nanoparticles and the like. Variations of this basic scheme are known in the art, and include those variations that facilitate separation of the hybrids to be detected from extraneous materials and/or that amplify the signal from the labeled moiety. A number of these variations are reviewed in, e.g., Matthews and Kricka (1988); Landegren et al. (1988); Mifflin (1989); U.S. Pat. No. 4,868,105; and in EPO Publication No. 225,807.
Non-PCR based screening assays are also contemplated in this invention. This procedure hybridizes a nucleic acid probe (or an analog such as a methyl phosphonate backbone replacing the normal phosphodiester), to the low level DNA target. This probe may have an enzyme covalently linked to the probe, such that the covalent linkage does not interfere with the specificity of the hybridization. This enzyme-probe-conjugate-target nucleic acid complex can then be isolated away from the free probe enzyme conjugate and a substrate is added for enzyme detection. Enzymatic activity is observed as a change in color development or luminescent output resulting in a 103-106 increase in sensitivity. For an example relating to the preparation of oligodeoxynucleotide-alkaline phosphatase conjugates and their use as hybridization probes see Jablonski et al. (1986).
Two-step label amplification methodologies are known in the art. These assays work on the principle that a small ligand (such as digoxigenin, biotin, or the like) is attached to a nucleic acid probe capable of specifically binding BRG1. Allele specific probes are also contemplated within the scope of this example and exemplary allele specific probes include probes encompassing the predisposing mutations of this disclosure.
In one example, the small ligand attached to the nucleic acid probe is specifically recognized by an antibody-enzyme conjugate. In one embodiment of this example, digoxigenin is attached to the nucleic acid probe. Hybridization is detected by an antibody-alkaline phosphatase conjugate which turns over a chemiluminescent substrate. For methods for labeling nucleic acid probes according to this embodiment see Martin et al. (1990). In a second example, the small ligand is recognized by a second ligand-enzyme conjugate that is capable of specifically complexing to the first ligand. A well known embodiment of this example is the biotin-avidin type of interactions. For methods for labeling nucleic acid probes and their use in biotin-avidin based assays see Rigby et al. (1977) and Nguyen et al. (1992).
It is also contemplated within the scope of this invention that the nucleic acid probe assays will employ a cocktail of nucleic acid probes capable of detecting BRG1 genes. Thus, in one example to detect the presence of BRG1 in a cell sample, more than one probe complementary to BRG1 is employed and in particular the number of different probes is alternatively 2, 3, or 5 different nucleic acid probe sequences. In another example, to detect the presence of mutations in the BRG1 gene sequence in a patient, more than one probe complementary to BRG1 is employed where the cocktail includes probes capable of binding to the allele-specific mutations identified in populations of patients with alterations in BRG1. In this embodiment, any number of probes can be used, and will preferably include probes corresponding to the major gene mutations identified as predisposing an individual to prostate or other cancer.
It is further contemplated within the scope of this invention that the nucleic acid probe assays of this invention will employ the recently developed nucleic acid microchip technology which utilizes an array of many thousands of probes bound to a chip to analyze a sample. This method thus analyzes the sample simultaneously using all of the probes which are bound to the microchip. For published examples of this technology see Hacia et al. (1996); Shoemaker et al. (1996); Chee et al. (1996); Lockhart et al. (1996); DeRisi et al. (1996); Lipshutz et al. (1995).
Methods of Use: Peptide Diagnosis and Diagnostic Kits
The neoplastic condition of lesions can also be detected on the basis of the alteration of wild-type BRG1 polypeptide. Such alterations can be determined by sequence analysis in accordance with conventional techniques. More preferably, antibodies (polyclonal or monoclonal) are used to detect differences in or the absence of BRG1 peptides. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, antibodies will immunoprecipitate BRG1 proteins from solution as well as react with BRG1 protein on Western or inimmunoblots of polyacrylamide gels. In another preferred embodiment, antibodies will detect BRG1 proteins in paraffin or frozen tissue sections, using immunocytochemical techniques. Techniques for raising and purifying antibodies are well known in the art, and any such techniques may be chosen to achieve the preparation of the invention.
Preferred embodiments relating to methods for detecting BRG1 or its mutations include enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), radioimmunoassays (RIA), immunoradiometric assays (IRMA) and immunoenzymatic assays (IEMA), including sandwich assays using monoclonal and/or polyclonal antibodies. Exemplary sandwich assays are described by David et al. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,376,110 and 4,486,530, hereby incorporated by reference) and exemplified in Example 10.
Methods of Use: Drug Screening
The present invention is particularly useful for screening compounds by using the BRG1 polypeptide or fragments thereof in any of a variety of drug screening techniques. The BRG1 polypeptide or fragment employed in such a test may either be free in solution, affixed to a solid support, or borne on a cell surface. One method of drug screening measures the binding of RB by BRG1. One may measure, for example, to what extent the binding activity of BRG1 is enhanced, or possibly inhibited, by the agent being tested.
One method of drug screening utilizes eucaryotic or procaryotic host cells which are stably transformed with recombinant polynucleotides expressing the polypeptide or fragment, preferably in competitive binding assays. Such cells, either in viable or fixed form, can be used for standard binding assays. One may measure, for example, for the formation of complexes between a BRG1 polypeptide or fragment and the agent being tested, or examine the degree to which the formation of a complex between a BRG1 polypeptide or fragment and a known ligand is interfered with by the agent being tested.
Thus, the present invention provides methods of screening for drugs comprising contacting such an agent with a BRG1 polypeptide or fragment thereof and assaying (i) for the presence of a complex between the agent and the BRG1 polypeptide or fragment, or (ii) for the presence of a complex between the BRG1 polypeptide or fragment and a ligand, by methods well known in the art. In such competitive binding assays the BRG1 polypeptide or fragment is typically labeled. Free BRG1 polypeptide or fragment is separated from that present in a protein:protein complex, and the amount of free (i.e., uncomplexed) label is a measure of the binding of the agent being tested to BRG1 or its interference with BRG1:ligand binding. One may also measure the amount of bound, rather than free. BRG1. It is also possible to label the ligand rather than the BRG1 and to measure the amount of ligand binding to BRG1 in the presence and in the absence of the drug being tested.
Another technique for drug screening provides high throughput screening for compounds having suitable binding affinity to the BRG1 polypeptide and is described in detail in Geysen (published PCT published application WO 84/03564). Briefly stated, large numbers of different small peptide test compounds are synthesized on a solid substrate, such as plastic pins or some other surface. The peptide test compounds are reacted with BRG1 polypeptide and washed. Bound BRG1 polypeptide is then detected by methods well known in the art.
Purified BRG1 can be coated directly onto plates for use in the aforementioned drug screening techniques. However, non-neutralizing antibodies to the polypeptide can be used to capture antibodies to immobilize the BRG1 polypeptide on the solid phase.
This invention also contemplates the use of competitive drug screening assays in which neutralizing antibodies capable of specifically binding the BRG1 polypeptide compete with a test compound for binding to the BRG1 polypeptide or fragments thereof. In this manner, the antibodies can be used to detect the presence of any peptide which shares one or more antigenic determinants of the BRG1 polypeptide.
The invention is particularly useful for screening compounds by using BRG1 protein in transformed cells, transfected oocytes or transgenic animals. The drug is added to the cells in culture or administered to a transgenic animal containing mutant BRG1 and the effect on cell growth is compared to the cell growth of cells or in animals containing the wild-type BRG1. Drug candidates which result in cell growth at a more normal level are useful for treating or preventing prostate or other cancer.
The above screening methods are not limited to assays employing only BRG1 but are also applicable to studying BRG1-protein complexes. Such assays can be performed in vitro. BRG1 interacts with RB to regulate a set of transcription factors known as E2Fs. This set of transcription factors controls a set of genes regulating G1 to S transition in the cell cycle. If this transition is blocked, the cell cycle will not progress and growth arrest occurs. Drugs that can replace a defective BRG1 in the interaction with or stimulation of RB will continue to maintain the control of E2Fs and can provide a therapeutic avenue. Drugs can be screened for their binding to wild-type RB, especially those that bind at the same site at which BRG1 interacts with RB. Such assays can be performed, e.g., by performing competitive binding assays of BRG1 and putative drug to RB. Drugs obtained from such a screen can then be used in in vivo assays.
The polypeptide of the invention may also be used for screening compounds developed as a result of combinatorial library technology. Combinatorial library technology provides an efficient way of testing a potential vast number of different substances for ability to modulate activity of a polypeptide. Such libraries and their use are known in the art. The use of peptide libraries is preferred. See, for example, WO 97/02048.
Briefly, a method of screening for a substance which modulates activity of a polypeptide may include contacting one or more test substances with the polypeptide in a suitable reaction medium, testing the activity of the treated polypeptide and comparing that activity with the activity of the polypeptide in comparable reaction medium untreated with the test substance or substances. A difference in activity between the treated and untreated polypeptides is indicative of a modulating effect of the relevant test substance or substances.
Prior to or as well as being screened for modulation of activity, test substances may be screened for ability to interact with the polypeptide, e.g., in a yeast two-hybrid system (e.g., Bartel et al., 1993; Fields and Song, 1989; Chevray and Nathans, 1992, Lee et al., 1995). This system may be used as a coarse screen prior to testing a substance for actual ability to modulate activity of the polypeptide. Alternatively, the screen could be used to screen test substances for binding to a BRG1 specific binding partner, or to find mimetics of the BRG1 polypeptide.
Following identification of a substance which modulates or affects polypeptide activity, the substance may be investigated further. Furthermore, it may be manufactured and/or used in preparation, i.e., manufacture or formulation, or a composition such as a medicament, pharmaceutical composition or drug. These may be administered to individuals.
Thus, the present invention extends in various aspects not only to a substance identified using a nucleic acid molecule as a modulator of polypeptide activity, in accordance with what is disclosed herein, but also a pharmaceutical composition, medicament, drug or other composition comprising such a substance, a method comprising administration of such a composition comprising such a substance, a method comprising administration of such a composition to a patient, e.g., for treatment (which may include preventative treatment) of cancer, use of such a substance in the manufacture of a composition for administration, e.g., for treatment of cancer, and a method of making a pharmaceutical composition comprising admixing such a substance with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, vehicle or carrier, and optionally other ingredients.
A substance identified as a modulator of polypeptide function may be peptide or non-peptide in nature. Non-peptide small molecules are often preferred for many in vivo pharmaceutical uses. Accordingly, a mimetic or mimic of the substance (particularly if a peptide) may be designed for pharmaceutical use.
The designing of mimetics to a known pharmaceutically active compound is a known approach to the development of pharmaceuticals based on a lead compound. This might be desirable where the active compound is difficult or expensive to synthesize or where it is unsuitable for a particular method of administration, e.g., peptides are unsuitable active agents for oral compositions as they tend to be quickly degraded by proteases in the alimentary canal. Mimetic design, synthesis and testing is generally used to avoid randomly screening large numbers of molecules for a target property.
There are several steps commonly taken in the design of a mimetic from a compound having a given target property. First, the particular parts of the compound that are critical and/or important in determining the target property are determined. In the case of a peptide, this can be done by systematically varying the amino acid residues in the peptide, e.g., by substituting each residue in turn. Alanine scans of peptide are commonly used to refine such peptide motifs. These parts or residues constituting the active region of the compound are known as its pharmacophore.
Once the pharmacophore has been found, its structure is modeled according to its physical properties, e.g., stereochemistry, bonding, size and/or charge, using data from a range of sources, e.g., spectroscopic techniques, x-ray diffraction data and NMR. Computational analysis, similarity mapping (which models the charge and/or volume of a pharmacophore, rather than the bonding between atoms) and other techniques can be used in this modeling process.
In a variant of this approach, the three-dimensional structure of the ligand and its binding partner are modeled. This can be especially useful where the ligand and/or binding partner change conformation on binding, allowing the model to take account of this in the design of the mimetic.
A template molecule is then selected onto which chemical groups which mimic the pharmacophore can be grafted. The template molecule and the chemical groups grafted onto it can conveniently be selected so that the mimetic is easy to synthesize, is likely to be pharmacologically acceptable, and does not degrade in vivo, while retaining the biological activity of the lead compound. Alternatively, where the mimetic is peptide-based, further stability can be achieved by cyclizing the peptide, increasing its rigidity. The mimetic or mimetics found by this approach can then be screened to see whether they have the target property, or to what extent they exhibit it. Further optimization or modification can then be carried out to arrive at one or more final mimetics for in vivo or clinical testing.
Methods of Use: Rational Drug Design
The goal of rational drug design is to produce structural analogs of biologically active polypeptides of interest or of small molecules with which they interact (e.g., agonists, antagonists, inhibitors or enhancers) in order to fashion drugs which are, for example, more active or stable forms of the polypeptide, or which, e.g., enhance or interfere with the function of a polypeptide in vivo. See, e.g., Hodgson (1991). In one approach, one first determines the three-dimensional structure of a protein of interest (e.g., BRG1) or, for example, of BRG1-RB complex, by x-ray crystallography, by computer modeling or most typically, by a combination of approaches. Less often, useful information regarding the structure of a polypeptide may be gained by modeling based on the structure of homologous proteins. An example of rational drug design is the development of HIV protease inhibitors (Erickson et al., 1990). In addition, peptides (e.g., BRG1) are analyzed by an alanine scan (Wells, 1991). In this technique, an amino acid residue is replaced by Ala, and its effect on the peptide""s activity is determined. Each of the amino acid residues of the peptide is analyzed in this manner to determine the important regions of the peptide.
It is also possible to isolate a target-specific antibody, selected by a functional assay, and then to solve its crystal structure. In principle, this approach yields a pharmacore upon which subsequent drug design can be based. It is possible to bypass protein crystallography altogether by generating anti-idiotypic antibodies (anti-ids) to a functional, pharmacologically active antibody. As a mirror image of a mirror image, the binding site of the anti-ids would be expected to be an analog of the original receptor. The anti-id could then be used to identify and isolate peptides from banks of chemically or biologically produced banks of peptides. Selected peptides would then act as the pharmacore.
Thus, one may design drugs which have, e.g., improved BRG1 activity or stability or which act as enhancers, inhibitors, agonists, antagonists, etc. of BRG1 activity. By virtue of the availability of cloned BRG1 sequences, sufficient amounts of the BRG1 polypeptide may be made available to perform such analytical studies as x-ray crystallography. In addition, the knowledge of the BRG1 protein sequence will guide those employing computer modeling techniques in place of, or in addition to, x-ray crystallography.
Methods of Use: Gene Therapy
According to the present invention, a method is also provided of supplying wild-type BRG1 function to a cell which carries mutant BRG1 alleles. Supplying such a function should suppress neoplastic growth of the recipient cells. The wild-type BRG1 gene or a part of the gene may be introduced into the cell in a vector such that the gene remains extrachromosomal. In such a situation, the gene will be expressed by the cell from the extrachromosomal location. If a gene portion is introduced and expressed in a cell carrying a mutant BRG1 allele, the gene portion should encode a part of the BRG1 protein which is required for non-neoplastic growth of the cell. More preferred is the situation where the wild-type BRG1 gene or a part thereof is introduced into the mutant cell in such a way that it recombines with the endogenous mutant BRG1 gene present in the cell. Such recombination requires a double recombination event which results in the correction of the BRG1 gene mutation. Vectors for introduction of genes both for recombination and for extrachromosomal maintenance are known in the art, and any suitable vector may be used. Methods for introducing DNA into cells such as electroporation, calcium phosphate co-precipitation and viral transduction are known in the art, and the choice of method is within the competence of the practitioner. Cells transformed with the wild-type BRG1 gene can be used as model systems to study cancer remission and drug treatments which promote such remission.
As generally discussed above, the BRG1 gene or fragment, where applicable, may be employed in gene therapy methods in order to increase the amount of the expression products of such genes in cancer cells. Such gene therapy is particularly appropriate for use in both cancerous and pre-cancerous cells, in which the level of BRG1 polypeptide is absent or diminished compared to normal cells. It may also be useful to increase the level of expression of a given BRG1 gene even in those tumor cells in which the mutant gene is expressed at a xe2x80x9cnormalxe2x80x9d level, but the gene product is not fully functional.
Gene therapy would be carried out according to generally accepted methods, for example, as described by Friedman (1991) or Culver (1996). Cells from a patient""s tumor would be first analyzed by the diagnostic methods described above, to ascertain the production of BRG1 polypeptide in the tumor cells. A virus or plasmid vector, containing a copy of the BRG1 gene linked to expression control elements and capable of replicating inside the tumor cells, is prepared. Suitable vectors are known, such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,252,479 and PCT published application WO 93/07282 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,691,198; 5,747,469; 5,436,146 and 5,753,500. The vector is then injected into the patient, either locally at the site of the tumor or systemically (in order to reach any tumor cells that may have metastasized to other sites). If the transfected gene is not permanently incorporated into the genome of each of the targeted tumor cells, the treatment may have to be repeated periodically.
Gene transfer systems known in the art may be useful in the practice of the gene therapy methods of the present invention. These include viral and nonviral transfer methods. A number of viruses have been used as gene transfer vectors or as the basis for repairing gene transfer vectors, including papovaviruses (e.g., SV40, Madzak et al., 1992), adenovirus (Berkner, 1992; Berkner et al., 1988; Gorziglia and Kapikian, 1992; Quantin et al., 1992; Rosenfeld et al., 1992; Wilkinson and Akrigg, 1992; Stratford-Perricaudet et al., 1990; Schneider et al., 1998), vaccinia virus (Moss, 1992; Moss, 1996), adeno-associated virus (Muzyczka, 1992; Ohi et al., 1990; Russell and Hirata, 1998), herpesviruses including HSV and EBV (Margolskee, 1992; Johnson et al., 1992; Fink et al., 1992; Breakefield and Geller, 1987; Freese et al., 1990; Fink et al., 1996), lentiviruses (Naldini et al., 1996), Sindbis and Semliki Forest virus (Berglund et al., 1993), and retroviruses of avian (Bandyopadhyay and Temin, 1984; Petropoulos et al., 1992), murine (Miller, 1992; Miller et al., 1985; Sorge et al., 1984; Mann and Baltimore, 1985; Miller et al., 1988), and human origin (Shimada et al., 1991; Helseth et al., 1990; Page et al., 1990; Buchschacher and Panganiban, 1992). Most human gene therapy protocols have been based on disabled murine retroviruses, although adenovirus and adeno-associated virus are also being used.
Nonviral gene transfer methods known in the art include chemical techniques such as calcium phosphate coprecipitation (Graham and van der Eb, 1973; Pellicer et al., 1980); mechanical techniques, for example microinjection (Anderson et al., 1980; Gordon et al., 1980; Brinster et al., 1981; Costantini and Lacy, 1981); membrane fusion-mediated transfer via liposomes (Felgner et al., 1987; Wang and Huang, 1989; Kaneda et al, 1989; Stewart et al., 1992; Nabel et al., 1990; Lim et al., 1991); and direct DNA uptake and receptor-mediated DNA transfer (Wolff et al., 1990; Wu et al., 1991; Zenke et al., 1990; Wu et al., 1989; Wolff et al., 1991; Wagner et al., 1990; Wagner et al., 1991; Cotten et al., 1990; Curiel et al., 1992; Curiel et al., 1991). Viral-mediated gene transfer can be combined with direct in vivo gene transfer using liposome delivery, allowing one to direct the viral vectors to the tumor cells and not into the surrounding nondividing cells. Alternatively, the retroviral vector producer cell line can be injected into tumors (Culver et al., 1992). Injection of producer cells would then provide a continuous source of vector particles. This technique has been approved for use in humans with inoperable brain tumors.
In an approach which combines biological and physical gene transfer methods, plasmid DNA of any size is combined with a polylysine-conjugated antibody specific to the adenovirus hexon protein, and the resulting complex is bound to an adenovirus vector. The trimolecular complex is then used to infect cells. The adenovirus vector permits efficient binding, internalization, and degradation of the endosome before the coupled DNA is damaged. For other techniques for the delivery of adenovirus based vectors see Schneider et al. (1998) and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,691,198; 5,747,469; 5,436,146 and 5,753,500.
Liposome/DNA complexes have been shown to be capable of mediating direct in vivo gene transfer. While in standard liposome preparations the gene transfer process is nonspecific, localized in vivo uptake and expression have been reported in tumor deposits, for example, following direct in situ administration (Nabel, 1992).
Expression vectors in the context of gene therapy are meant to include those constructs containing sequences sufficient to express a polynucleotide that has been cloned therein. In viral expression vectors, the construct contains viral sequences sufficient to support packaging of the construct. If the polynucleotide comprises BRG1, expression will produce BRG1. If the polynucleotide encodes an antisense polynucleotide or a ribozyme, expression will produce the antisense polynucleotide or ribozyme. Thus in this context, expression does not require that a protein product be synthesized. In addition to the polynucleotide cloned into the expression vector, the vector also contains a promoter functional in eukaryotic cells. The cloned polynucleotide sequence is under control of this promoter. Suitable eukaryotic promoters include those described above. The expression vector may also include sequences, such as selectable markers and other sequences described herein.
Gene transfer techniques which target DNA directly to prostate is preferred. Receptor-mediated gene transfer, for example, is accomplished by the conjugation of DNA (usually in the form of covalently closed supercoiled plasmid) to a protein ligand via polylysine. Ligands are chosen on the basis of the presence of the corresponding ligand receptors on the cell surface of the target cell/tissue type. These ligand-DNA conjugates can be injected directly into the blood if desired and are directed to the target tissue where receptor binding and internalization of the DNA-protein complex occurs. To overcome the problem of intracellular destruction of DNA, coinfection with adenovirus can be included to disrupt endosome function.
The therapy is as follows: patients who carry a BRG1 susceptibility allele are treated with a gene delivery vehicle such that some or all of their prostate precursor cells receive at least one additional copy of a functional normal BRG1 allele. In this step, the treated individuals have reduced risk of prostate or other cancer to the extent that the effect of the susceptible allele has been countered by the presence of the normal allele.
Methods of Use: Peptide Therapy
Peptides which have BRG1 activity can be supplied to cells which carry mutant or missing BRG1 alleles. The sequence of the BRG1 protein is disclosed (SEQ ID NO:2). Protein can be produced by expression of the cDNA sequence in bacteria, for example, using known expression vectors. Alternatively, BRG1 polypeptide can be extracted from BRG1-producing mammalian cells. In addition, the techniques of synthetic chemistry can be employed to synthesize BRG1 protein. Any of such techniques can provide the preparation of the present invention which comprises the BRG1 protein. The preparation is substantially free of other human proteins. This is most readily accomplished by synthesis in a microorganism or in vitro.
Active BRG1 molecules can be introduced into cells by microinjection or by use of liposomes, for example. Alternatively, some active molecules may be taken up by cells, actively or by diffusion. Extracellular application of the BRG1 gene product may be sufficient to affect tumor growth. Supply of molecules with BRG1 activity should lead to partial reversal of the neoplastic state. Other molecules with BRG1 activity (for example, peptides, drugs or organic compounds) may also be used to effect such a reversal. Modified polypeptides having substantially similar function are also used for peptide therapy.
Methods of Use: Transformed Hosts
Similarly, cells and animals which carry a mutant BRG1 allele can be used as model systems to study and test for substances which have potential as therapeutic agents. The cells are typically cultured epithelial cells. These may be isolated from individuals with BRG1 mutations, either somatic or germline. Alternatively, the cell line can be engineered to carry the mutation in the BRG1 allele, as described above. After a test substance is applied to the cells, the neoplastically transformed phenotype of the cell is determined. Any trait of neoplastically transformed cells can be assessed, including anchorage-independent growth, tumorigenicity in nude mice, invasiveness of cells, and growth factor dependence. Assays for each of these traits are known in the art.
Animals for testing therapeutic agents can be selected after mutagenesis of whole animals or after treatment of germline cells or zygotes. Such treatments include insertion of mutant BRG1 alleles, usually from a second animal species, as well as insertion of disrupted homologous genes. Alternatively, the endogenous BRG1 gene of the animals may be disrupted by insertion or deletion mutation or other genetic alterations using conventional techniques (Capecchi, 1989; Valancius and Smithies. 1991; Hasty et al., 1991; Shinkai et al., 1992; Mombaerts et al., 1992; Philpott et al., 1992; Snouwaert et al., 1992; Donehower et al., 1992). After test substances have been administered to the animals, the growth of tumors must be assessed. If the test substance prevents or suppresses the growth of tumors, then the test substance is a candidate therapeutic agent for the treatment of the cancers identified herein. These animal models provide an extremely important testing vehicle for potential therapeutic products.
The identification of the association between the BRG1 gene mutations and prostate and other cancers permits the early presymptomatic screening of individuals to identify those at risk for developing such cancers. To identify such individuals, BRG1 alleles are screened for mutations either directly or after cloning the alleles. The alleles are tested for the presence of nucleic acid sequence differences from the normal allele using any suitable technique, including but not limited to, one of the following methods: fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), direct DNA sequencing, PFGE analysis, Southern blot analysis, single stranded conformation analysis (SSCP), linkage analysis, RNase protection assay, allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO), dot blot analysis and PCR-SSCP analysis. Also useful is the recently developed technique of DNA microchip technology. For example, either (1) the nucleotide sequence of both the cloned alleles and normal BRG1 gene or appropriate fragment (coding sequence or genomic sequence) are determined and then compared, or (2) the RNA transcripts of the BRG1 gene or gene fragment are hybridized to single stranded whole genomic DNA from an individual to be tested, and the resulting heteroduplex is treated with Ribonuclease A (RNase A) and run on a denaturing gel to detect the location of any mismatches. Two of these methods can be carried out according to the following procedures.
The alleles of the BRG1 gene in an individual to be tested are cloned using conventional techniques. For example, a blood sample is obtained from the individual. The genomic DNA isolated from the cells in this sample is partially digested to an average fragment size of approximately 20 kb. Fragments in the range from 18-21 kb are isolated. The resulting fragments are ligated into an appropriate vector. The sequences of the clones are then determined and compared to the normal BRG1 gene.
Alternatively, polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) are performed with primer pairs for the 5xe2x80x2 region or the exons of the BRG1 gene. PCRs can also be performed with primer pairs based on any sequence of the normal BRG1 gene. For example, primer pairs for one of the introns can be prepared and utilized. Finally, RT-PCR can also be performed on the mRNA. The amplified products are then analyzed by single stranded conformation polymorphisms (SSCP) using conventional techniques to identify any differences and these are then sequenced and compared to the normal gene sequence.
Individuals can be quickly screened for common BRG1 gene variants by amplifying the individual""s DNA using suitable primer pairs and analyzing the amplified product, e.g. by dot-blot hybridization using allele-specific oligonucleotide probes.
The second method employs RNase A to assist in the detection of differences between the normal BRG1 gene and defective genes. This comparison is performed in steps using small (500 bp) restriction fragments of the BRG1 gene as the probe. First, the BRG1 gene is digested with a restriction enzyme(s) that cuts the gene sequence into fragments of approximately 500 bp. These fragments are separated on an electrophoresis gel, purified from the gel and cloned individually, in both orientations, into an SP6 vector (e.g., pSP64 or pSP65). The SP6-based plasmids containing inserts of the BRG1 gene fragments are transcribed in vitro using the SP6 transcription system, well known in the art, in the presence of [xcex1-32P]GTP, generating radiolabeled RNA transcripts of both strands of the gene.
Individually, these RNA transcripts are used to form heteroduplexes with the allelic DNA using conventional techniques. Mismatches that occur in the RNA:DNA heteroduplex, owing to sequence differences between the BRG1 fragment and the BRG1 allele subclone from the individual, result in cleavage in the RNA strand when treated with RNase A. Such mismatches can be the result of point mutations or small deletions in the individual""s allele. Cleavage of the RNA strand yields two or more small RNA fragments, which run faster on the denaturing gel than the RNA probe itself.
Any differences which are found, will identify an individual as having a molecular variant of the BRG1 gene and the consequent presence of or predisposition toward prostate cancer. These variants can take a number of forms. The most severe forms would be frame shift mutations or large deletions which would cause the gene to code for an abnormal protein or one which would significantly alter protein expression. Less severe disruptive mutations would include small in-frame deletions and nonconservative base pair substitutions which would have a significant effect on the protein produced, such as changes to or from a cysteine residue, from a basic to an acidic amino acid or vice versa, from a hydrophobic to hydrophilic amino acid or vice versa, or other mutations which would affect secondary or tertiary protein structure. Silent mutations or those resulting in conservative amino acid substitutions would not generally be expected to disrupt protein function.
Genetic testing will enable practitioners to identify individuals at risk for prostate cancer at, or even before, birth. Presymptomatic diagnosis will enable prevention of the cancer. Finally, this invention changes our understanding of the cause and treatment of prostate cancer.
Methods of Use: Transgenic/Knockout Animals
In one embodiment of the invention, transgenic animals are produced which contain a functional transgene encoding a functional BRG1 polypeptide or variants thereof. Transgenic animals expressing BRG1 transgenes, recombinant cell lines derived from such animals and transgenic embryos may be useful in methods for screening for and identifying agents that induce or repress function of BRG1. Transgenic animals of the present invention also can be used as models for studying indications such as cancers.
In one embodiment of the invention, a BRG1 transgene is introduced into a non-human host to produce a transgenic animal expressing a human or murine BRG1 gene. The transgenic animal is produced by the integration of the transgene into the genome in a manner that permits the expression of the transgene. Methods for producing transgenic animals are generally described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,191; Brinster et al. (1985); and xe2x80x9cManipulating the Mouse Embryo; A Laboratory Manualxe2x80x9d 2nd edition (eds., Hogan, Beddington, Costantini and Long, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1994); which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).
It may be desirable to replace the endogenous BRG1 by homologous recombination between the transgene and the endogenous gene; or the endogenous gene may be eliminated by deletion as in the preparation of xe2x80x9cknock-outxe2x80x9d animals. Typically, a BRG1 gene flanked by genomic sequences is transferred by microinjection into a fertilized egg. The microinjected eggs are implanted into a host female, and the progeny are screened for the expression of the transgene. Transgenic animals may be produced from the fertilized eggs from a number of animals including, but not limited to reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals, and fish. Within a particularly preferred embodiment, transgenic mice are generated which overexpress BRG1 or express a mutant form of the polypeptide. Alternatively, the absence of a BRG1 in xe2x80x9cknock-outxe2x80x9d mice permits the study of the effects that loss of BRG1 protein has on a cell in vivo. Knock-out mice also provide a model for the development of BRG1-related cancers.
Methods for producing knockout animals are generally described by Shastry (1995), Shastry (1998) and Osterrieder and Wolf (1998). The production of conditional knockout animals, in which the gene is active until knocked out at the desired time is generally described by Feil et al. (1996), Gagneten et al. (1997) and Lobe and Nagy (1998). Each of these references is incorporated herein by reference.
As noted above, transgenic animals and cell lines derived from such animals may find use in certain testing experiments. In this regard, transgenic animals and cell lines capable of expressing wild-type or mutant BRG1 may be exposed to test substances. These test substances can be screened for the ability to enhance wild-type BRG1 expression and or function or impair the expression or function of mutant BRG1.
Pharmaceutical Compositions and Routes of Administration
The BRG1 polypeptides, antibodies, peptides and nucleic acids of the present invention can be formulated in pharmaceutical compositions, which are prepared according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques. See, for example, Remington""s Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Ed. (1990, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.). The composition may contain the active agent or pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the active agent. These compositions may comprise, in addition to one of the active substances, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, carrier, buffer, stabilizer or other materials well known in the art. Such materials should be non-toxic and should not interfere with the efficacy of the active ingredient. The carrier may take a wide variety of forms depending on the form of preparation desired for administration, e.g., intravenous, oral, intrathecal, epineural or parenteral.
For oral administration, the compounds can be formulated into solid or liquid preparations such as capsules, pills, tablets, lozenges, melts, powders, suspensions or emulsions. In preparing the compositions in oral dosage form, any of the usual pharmaceutical media may be employed, such as, for example, water, glycols, oils, alcohols, flavoring agents, preservatives, coloring agents, suspending agents, and the like in the case of oral liquid preparations (such as, for example, suspensions, elixirs and solutions); or carriers such as starches, sugars, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents and the like in the case of oral solid preparations (such as, for example, powders, capsules and tablets). Because of their ease in administration, tablets and capsules represent the most advantageous oral dosage unit form, in which case solid pharmaceutical carriers are obviously employed. If desired, tablets may be sugar-coated or enteric-coated by standard techniques. The active agent can be encapsulated to make it stable to passage through the gastrointestinal tract while at the same time allowing for passage across the blood brain barrier. See for example, WO 96/11698.
For parenteral administration, the compound may be dissolved in a pharmaceutical carrier and administered as either a solution or a suspension. Illustrative of suitable carriers are water, saline, dextrose solutions, fructose solutions, ethanol, or oils of animal, vegetative or synthetic origin. The carrier may also contain other ingredients, for example, preservatives, suspending agents, solubilizing agents, buffers and the like. When the compounds are being administered intrathecally, they may also be dissolved in cerebrospinal fluid.
The active agent is preferably administered in a therapeutically effective amount. The actual amount administered, and the rate and time-course of administration, will depend on the nature and severity of the condition being treated. Prescription of treatment, e.g. decisions on dosage, timing, etc., is within the responsibility of general practitioners or specialists, and typically takes account of the disorder to be treated, the condition of the individual patient, the site of delivery, the method of administration and other factors known to practitioners. Examples of techniques and protocols can be found in Remington""s Pharmaceutical Sciences. 
Alternatively, targeting therapies may be used to deliver the active agent more specifically to certain types of cell, by the use of targeting systems such as antibodies or cell specific ligands. Targeting may be desirable for a variety of reasons, e.g. if the agent is unacceptably toxic, or if it would otherwise require too high a dosage, or if it would not otherwise be able to enter the target cells.
Instead of administering these agents directly, they could be produced in the target cell, e.g. in a viral vector such as described above or in a cell based delivery system such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,050 and published PCT application Nos. WO 92/19195, WO 94/25503, WO 95/01203, WO 95/05452, WO 96/02286, WO 96/02646, WO 96/40871, WO 96/40959 and WO 97/12635, designed for implantation in a patient. The vector could be targeted to the specific cells to be treated, or it could contain regulatory elements which are more tissue specific to the target cells. The cell based delivery system is designed to be implanted in a patient""s body at the desired target site and contains a coding sequence for the active agent. Alternatively, the agent could be administered in a precursor form for conversion to the active form by an activating agent produced in, or targeted to, the cells to be treated. See for example, EP 425,731 A and WO 90/07936.
The present invention is described by reference to the following Examples, which are offered by way of illustration and are not intended to limit the invention in any manner. Standard techniques well known in the art or the techniques specifically described below were utilized.